A Grammar of the Asante and Fante Language Called Tshi Chwee, Twi Based on the Akuapem Dialect ...

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HARVARD COLLEGE
LIBRARY

FROM THE FUND OF

THOMAS WREN WARD

of Huvud CoUig*
I 830-1 843

%

GRAMMAR

OF THE

ASANTE AND FANTE LANGUAGE

CALLED I^SIIT fCHWEE, TWI].

A

^^GRAMMAR

OF THE

4-

AS ANTE A NU FANTE LANGUAGE

7/

CALLED TSHI [CHWEE, TWI]:

BASED ON THE AKUAPEM DIALECT

WITH BKFEUKNCE TO THK OTHER (AKAN AND FANTE) DIALECTS

BY

REV. J. G. CHRIST ALLER,

OF THE BASEL. GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION
ON THE GOLD COAST, W. A.

^^-^ BASEL: 1875.

PRINTED FOR THE BASEL EVANG. MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
Also sold by TrObner & Co. 57. 59. Ludgatk Hill, London,

AND C. BnUL, CHRI8TLA.N8BORO, GoLD COAST, W.A.

^^5^,^^
3

\

\A/ Oo'^ci^ X\AA^O^

'% r

y r^

t -

PREFACE.

The Tshi lanfftmpey of which a Grammar is presented in this book,
is spoken and understood throughout the Gold Coast territories and
inland countries, as will be seen in the Introduction § 1. On the
name of the language, see Introd. § 3. — Though several European
nations had intercourse with the natives and formed settlements on
the Gold Coast since the 15th or even 14th century (French merchants
of Dieppe [of the Rouen Trading Company formed in 1366], 1383-1413,
and afterwards since 1578; the Portuguese, 1453 or 1471 and 1481
to 1643; the English, since 1551; the Dutch, 1595-1870; the Danes,
from about 1640 to 1850; the Swedes, previous to 1652 and at the least
till 1663; the Germans of Brandenburg or Prussia 1682-1720; besides
the trading vessels from Spain, America, Hamburg, Bremen, &c.) ; and
though many Negroes learned the Portuguese or Dutch or Danish or
English language: yet there has almost nothing of the native language
or languages been known in Europe down to the present century.
The earliest specimens of the Tshi language we find in a book of tlie
Kev. W. J. MiUler, of Harburg near Hamburg, published in German
1673, containing about 500 words in the Fante dialect of Cape Coast,
and another of Ch, Protlen, a mulatto of the Gold Coast, educated in
Denmark, who wrote a scanty grammar of the Fante and Akra
languages, together with the Ten Commandments, the Apostolic Creed,
the Lord's Prayer and Bible words on Baptism and the Lord's Supper,
in both languages, printed in 1764. See hereafter page VI. VII.

The Rev. H. N, Hiis of the Basel Mission on the Gold Coast wrote
two Grammars of the Tshi language, one in German, and one in English,
published in 1853 and 1854 (the full titles see below on page VIII),
thereby opening, as it were, the path through an untrodden wilderness
in the right direction. The author of the present work, having had
the benefit of being initiated into the language by Mr. Hiis at Basel
in 1851 and 1852, has never ceased to apprize the masterly and at the
same time modest manner in which his esteemed and beloved teacher
turned to account the materials which he had been able to gather
during his rather short stay in Africa (1845-1849). Though Mr. Iliis
himself calls his representation of the leading features of the gram-
matical structure of the language imperfect and initiatory, yet those two

II PREFACE.

publications sufficed so far, that his successor and his fellow labourers
could do without a new grammar for a longer time, and preferred to
turn their attention and apply their time and strength to practical
missionary work and to the literary cultivation of the language at once.
The said successor of Mr. Riis in the literary branch of the Basel
Missionary Society's work in the Akuapem and Akem Countries had,
soon after his arrival\at Akropong in 1853, the further advantage of
the assistance of young intelligent Natives, who in the Missionary
Schools had already received a valuable amount of instruction in
English as well as in attempts of writing their own lajiguage ; with
them he could proceed to translation tvorkj discussing every difficulty
and obscurity that presented itself either in the native or in the English
and Bible languages. The pupils of the Catechist Institution, and
assistants that had come forth from among them, were made to trans-
late, orally and on paper, from Bible History, from the Bible itself
and other English books, and to write down old stories, fables of
the natives or historical facts, and essays on various subjects; public
assemblies were attended, and the speeches delivered in them were
dictated from memory by the native assistant and penned down by
the missionary; the collection o^ proverbs, which Mr. Riis had brought
to the number of 268, in course of time swelled to ten times that
number. In these and other ways, also by intercourse with other
natives, young and old, the knowledge of the language was increased,
the sounds of it were more closely investigated and clearly distin-
guished, the laws of the language were found out more and more, and
sufficient confidence was obtained that the books prepared for printing
were no unripe productions. At the same time every opportunity to
get information on the other dialects was eagerly embraced, and the
translations in Akra or Ga (introd. § 5 B 1.), which were likewise the
result of the co-operation of European missionaries, especially the Rev.
J. Zimmermann, with native assistants, were compared and turned to
advantage for the translations in Tshi, the more so, as the native
assistants usually had a good knowledge of the Akra language besides
that of their own. Thus, in the course of time, all the books contained
in the list on pag. VIII. IX. were printed; many of them were prepared,
by the author of the present publication, on the Missionary Stations at
Akropong 1853-58, 1866-68, Aburi 1862-65, Kycbi (in the Akem
country) 1865 and 66, many also were carried through the press by the
same, during his stay in Europe 1858-62 and since 1869. But now
the edition of a new Grammar could no longer be postponed. — Among
other preliminary attempts to a new grammar, a vei'nacular grammar
had been written in 1863, by which a grammatical terminology in

PREFACE. Ill

Tshi was created. The mannscript was copied by native teachers for
the nse in the Mission Schools. Some years later, after the whole Bible
in Tshi had been published, it was rewritten by its author, but in-
stead of having it printed, it was thought better, to write first the
present grammar in English, following in various arrangements the
'course pursued in that previous work, as it seemed to be prescribed
by the peculiarities of African, compared with European languages.

The present tcork is intended for Missionaries and other Europeans
that may be desirous of acquiring a knowledge of the chief among the
native languages of the Gold Coast, as well as for educated Natives^
whether they have received their education in English only, or be
already acquainted with reading and writing their own language, as
those trained in the Basel Missionary Institutions on the Gold Coast.
It is also hoped tliat this work will be welcome to 2)hilologists inter-
ested and engaged in the pursuits of science concerning African and
general Linguistry and Ethnology.

As to the Alphabet adopted in reducing the Tshi language to writ-
iDg, Mr. Riis kept to the ^Rules for reducimf unwritten languages
to alphabetical writing in Homan characters^ tvith reference especially
to the languages spoken in Africa\ laid down by the Rev. H, Venn
of the Church Missionary Society in 1848, as nearly as the peculiar
character of the language would permit. In 1854 these ^Rules^ were
superseded by the ^Standard Alphabet for reducing unwritten languages
and foreign graphic systems to a uniform orthography in European
letters'* by Dr. li. Lepsius^ Professor (now Privy Counselor of the
Government) at Berlin, which alphabet was recommended, approved and
adopted by the Church Miss. Soc, the Wesleyan Miss. Soc, the London
Miss. Soc. and several other Missionary Societies in England, Germany,
France and America, and in which, since 1854, a great number of
books in more than twenty African and many other languages have
been printed. The necessity as well as the propriety of our making
use of that ^Standard Alphabet is without question to any one acquain-
ted with the book, a second edition of which was printed in 1863.
I Some sounds, indeed, occur in Tshi, which were not yet contained
in the Standard Alphabet, nor in the 120 languages to which it has
been applied in the second edition; but, the system, on which the
Standard Alphabet has been construed, being elastic enough to admit
of reduction or enlargement without alteration in its essential principles^
after a discussion on the nature of those sounds between the author
of the Standard Alphabet and the writer of this, signs were provided
for those peculiar sounds, and approved by the fellow labourers of
the latter in Africa, so that the orthography of this language was
definitely settled in 1869, previous to the printing of the entire Bible
in Tshi in 1870 and 1871.

Concerning the Orthography of foreign^ especially biblical, proper
names, we refer to § 14 of this Grammar and to the Stories from

IV PREFACE.

General History, translated into the Tslii language, page IV., bnt have
to add the following remark. In Scripture proper names we usually
write the letters which the names have in the Latin, English or Ger-
man Bible and sound them according to the Standard Alphabet, omitt-
ing such letters as are not heard in pronunciation, and modifying
some terminations as in the Italian Bible. To the Hebrew letter
represented by the English J, we reserved the Hebrew and German
found, and consequently replaced it by the letter Y of the English
and the Standard Alphabet. In the Akra, Ewe and Kru languages,
the vowel sign I is used in this case, as in Greek. For the sake of
conformity with those languages, we should not feel disinclined to
follow the same course in future publications. The letter I, besides
requiring less space, will be less objectionable than Y, to eyes accusto-
med to the English J in such names, though the sound will actually
be that of Y. (The letter J cannot be used, because the Stand. Alph.
replaces its German sound by Y, and its English sound by Dz; but
the latter sound ought not to be intruded upon foreign languages, in-
stead of the simple Y sound of the original Hebrew name.) Consistency
with the principles of the Standard Alphabet, however, favours the
retention of Y in the names in question.

The preceding notices on the alphabet and orthography in Tshi
books are given especially with regard to the writers and readers of
the ^Mfantsi Grammar * by D. L. Carr and J. P. Broivn, Cape Coast,
1868, of which the writer of this in 1870 obtained a copy kindly
procured to him by the Rev. J. Baratt of the Wesleyan Methodist
Missionary Society. This attempt of natives to reduce the *Mfantse
language' to writing, following after the earlier attempts of Cli. Protten,
W, A, Hanson and Timothy Laing, could not but be exceedingly wel-
come to one engaged in similar pursuits, yet only slightly acquainted
with the Fante dialects. But the orthographic system of the ^Mfantsi
Grammar \ based on the English alphabet (only c = s or ^ being
borrowed from H. N, Riis)^ is by no means satisfactory. Especially
the means employed for the representation of the vowel system, which
in Tshi contains more and finer distinctions than in the English or
any other European language, are quite insufficient. For 10 pure and
7 nasal vowel sounds, each of them long and short, or for about 34
distinct vowels, the Mf. Gr. uses only 5 letters, 3 of them with two-
fold sounds; and to indicate one of those nasal (but nevertheless simple)
vowels, two or three letters are used; e. g. the words efa, mfe, mpa,
p^pa, efa, mfe, mpa, papa, are written in the Mf, Gr. ^eff'ur, mft,
mpa, pappur, efhur, mfhi, mphur, paphur'-^ and in the four last words
the h ought to have an n subscribed, both together only to denote
the nasalization of the succeeding vowel. In the etymological and
syntactical parts of the Mfantsi Grammar it is likewise evident that
the authors were under the disadvantage of being not acquainted with
the great variety of grammatical phenomena in different languages
besides the English and their own. The present Grammar contains
references to the Mf- Gr. in several places, and they would have been
increased, if it had not been for want of space.

PREFACE.

The author has never had the advantage of living among or con-
versing with Englishmen more than a few weeks at a time, neither
could he submit the manuscript or part of it to an Englishman before
it went to the press; he begs, therefore, to excuse for any deficiencies
with regard to the English diction, technical terms, punctuation and
the like. He is, however, indebted to a brother missionary, the Rev.
J. Mack^ joint author of a Tulu Grammar (Mangalore, Basel Mission
Press, 1872), who had been 15 years in the East Indies and happened
to take his abode for a short time in the same country-town, for his
advice and corrections and the communication of some English and
East Indian Grammars, the, arrangements and technical terms of which
contributed to the features of the present book. It is worth noticing,
that Mr. Mack was surprised to find many analogies in the ways of
expressing man^s thoughts in the African and Dravidian languages.

By another missionary from the East Indies the author was made
acquainted with Th, FrenderpasVs Mastery System, which he partly
followed in initiating a newly appointed missionary in the Tshi lan-
guage, and which led him to hope that the manner in which examples
are given in this Grammar, will prove to be useful for more than
one method of learning the language. If a learner should not be in-
clined to follow the grammatical arrangement and definitions in this
Grammar, he may pick out such sentences as he thinks to be an-
swering to his practical purposes; only we would advice every foreign
student desiring to master the language, to have the sentences, as
far as possible, read or spoken to him by Natives, and -to learn with
his ear and tongue not less than with his eye. It remains the author*s
wish, to add to this publication not only a shorter VernactUar Grram-
mar, but also more extensive lists of words and collections of senten-
ces and well arranged proverbs serving as a ''Grammar in Examples'',
besides a Tshi English Dictionary. For a satisfactory preparation
of the latter, he is desirous of increasing his knowledge of the Eant(».
and Asante dialects, either personally, or by any contributions in
writing that may be obtainable from natives educated in the English
and German Missionary Schools on the Gold Coast.

May the new era inaugurated for the Gold Coast by the termination
of the Asante war in the first months of 1874, be marked by a steady
progress in every endeavour and undertaking to bring the long neg-
lected and long benighted countries of the Gold Coast under the in-
fluences of true civilization and of its most effective agent, the light
of the Gospel.

Schomdorf, Wurtemberg, January 1875.

J. G. GHRISTALLER.

LISTS OF BOOKS FOR LITERARY REFERENCES.

A. Authors or Publications on Geoffraphioal and Historical

Matters of the Gold Coast,

Information on the state and history of the Gold Coast since the
15th century may be drawn from the following sources:

a. Portuguese authors, e. g. Vasconcelos in his Life of King John.

6. French, Dutch and English authors of the 17th and 18th centuries,
who had been on the Gold Coast in or about the years put in paren-
thesis, in books bearing the titles of a Journej/ to Guinea or a De-
scription of Guinea; viz. VillauU de Belief ond (1666), Barhot (1680-87),
Bosnian (1695-99; his book was printed in French, Utrecht 1705),
Th. Phillips (1694), 6r. Loyer (1701), J.Atkins (1721), des Marchais
(1725), W. Smith (1726); Artus of Danzig (about 1600) in de Bri/s
East Indies, the 6th part.

c. German and Danish authors of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries;

1. Midler, W.J. (1662-70 a Danish chaplain at Fredcriksborg, which
fort in 1685 was sold to the English and named Fort lioyal, now |
Fort Victoria, one of the detached forts of Cape Coast Castle). His
book bears the title: *2)/e Africanische Landschaft Fetu'' [Afutu],
Hamburg, 1673 (a counterfeited edition appeared at Ntirnberg 1675),
pages 287, besides a vocabulary of about 500 words.

2. Tillemann, E, (a Danish lieutenant at Christiansborg for 9 years),
^Beretning om detLandskah Guinea cite' Kjobenhavn, 1697. pp. 163.

3. Bask, J. (a Danish chaplain in Guinea, 1709-1712), ^Beisebc-
skrivehe til og fra Guinea', Trondhjem, 1754. pp. 320.

4. Bomer, L. K (a Danish merchant ab. 1735-1743), 'Efterrctninff
om Kysten Guinea', Kjobenhavn, 1760. pp.348. (German ed. 1761).)

5. Isert, Dr. P. E. (a Danish physician general), Beise nacJi Guinea
iitc. (1783-1786), Kopenhagen, 1788. pp. 376. (He died 1789 on tlie
Danish colony Frederiksnopel founded by him on the Akuapem moun-
tains, near Akropong.)

6. Monrad, H. C. (a Danish chaplain on the Gold Coast 1805-1809);
Gemdlde der Kiiste von Guinea (he, translated from the Danish into
German, Weimar, 1824. pp 388. — In the preface on page XI. other
Danish sources of information on the Gold Coast are mentioned.

7. The Missionaries of the Moravians, who died on the Gold Coast
in 1736, 1768, 1769, among them Clb. Protten (see hereafter, B 2.). —
Some information on the peoples and languages of the Gold Coast is
also found in Oldendorp's ^Geschichte der Mission der evangelisclien
Bruder aufden Inseln S. Thomas, S. Croix und S. Jan\ Barby, 1777.

LISTS OF BOOKS. VII

8. The Basel Missionaries, in their reports &c. since 1828.

A good deal of information concerning Asante is contained in the interesting book
"Ficr Jahre in Asante, Tagebiicher der Missionare Ramseyer und KiiJine cms
dcr Zeit Hirer Gefangenschaft, bearbeitet von Dr. H. GunderC\ Basel, 1874,
2(1 ed. 1875. This book has been translated into EngUsh by Mrs. WeitbrecJU:
"Four Years in Ashantee. by the Missionaries Bawseyer and Kiihne" London,
J. Xisbet & Co. 1875.

d. JEncflish authors of the 19th century, previous to the war of the
English with Asante in 1873 and 74. The most important are

1. Boicdich, a Mission to Ashantee; London 1819; reprinted 1874.

2. Beecliam, Dr. J., Ashantee and the Gold Coast, London, 1841.
(He mentions also the works of Meredith, DupiiiSy Hutton, &c.)

3. CruicJcshank, B., Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, London, 1853.

4. The Missionaries of the Wesleyan Methodist Miss. Soc. since 1835.

Compilations on the state and history of the G. C. are also found in
East, I). J., Western Africa; its Condition d^c. London, 1844, and in
Wilson, J. L., Western Africa, its History dtc. London and New York, 1 856.

B. Authors fuvnishing information or specimens of words

of the Tshi Language.

1. MiUler, W, J., 1670. See the preceding list, Ac 1.

2. Protten, CJi., a mulatto of Christianshorg, studying at Copenhagen,

about 1760. En nyttig Grammaticalsk Indledelse til Tvende hidindtil
gandske uhekiendte Sproq, FanteisJc og AcraisJc, Kjobenhavn 1764.
(A useful Grammatical Introduction into two hitherto entirely un-
known Languages, Fante and Akra, Copenhagen 1 764. 20 pages).

3. KiUiam, Hannah, Specimens of African Langua/jes.

4. De Graft, W., Fanti Vocabulary in Dr. J. Beecham\s 'Ashantee and

the Gold Coast'.

5. Ansa, John Oivnsu, and W. Otvusu Kivantabisa, two Asante princes,

1836-41 in England.

The words of 3-5 are embodied in a Vocahidary of a few of
the principal languages of Western and Central Africa, compiled
(by the African Civilization Society with the assistance of Mr.
Edwin Norris, Assist. Seer, to the Koyal Asiatic Soc. of London)
for the use of the Niger Expedition, London, 1841.

6. Clarke, J., Specimens of Dialects, short Vocabularies of Languages,

and Notes of Countries and Customs in Africa, Bcrwick-upon-
Twced, 1848.

7. litis, H, N., 1849. Sec the succeeding list, C. 5. 6. 4.

8. KoUe, S. W., Polyglotta Africana, London, 1854.

•. Carr^ D, L,, and Brown, J. P., Mfantsi Grammar, Cape Coast, 1868.

VIII LISTS OF BOOKS.

C. Publications in the Tshi Language,
prepared by the Basel Missionaries in the Akuapem

and Alcem Countries.

The figures 1 — 43 refer to the order in which the single publications followed
each other. See "^1 Dictionary, English, Tshi (Asantc)^ Akra'% pag. XVI— XX.
where the titles are also given in Tshi, and the names of the translators of the
books under IL III. are added. Those marked * are still to be had or in use, the
rest are out of print or replaced by new editions.

I. Grammars and Vocabularies,

*5. Elemente des Akwapim Dialects der Odschi Sprache, enthaltend
grammatisclie Grundziige und Wortersammlung, iiebst einer
BammluDg von Spriichwortcrn der Eingebornen, von H. N. Riis
(pp. 18. 324). Basel, C. Detloff, 1853.

*6. Grammatical Outline and Vocabulary of the Oji Languafjej with
especial reference to the Akwapim Dialect, together with a Col-
lection of Proverbs of the Natives, by Rev. //. N. Riis, (pp. 8.
276). Basel, C. Detloff, 1854.

*41. u4 Grammar of the Asante and I ante Lanrjuarje called Tshi, —
the present book.

*39. A Dictionary, English, Tshi (Asante), Akra, by the Rev. J. G.
Christaller, Rev. Ch. W. Locher, Rev. J. Zimmermann (pp. 24.
275). Basel, Missiousbuchliandlung, 1874.

II. The Bible and Portions of it.

*28. The Holy Bible, translated . . . into the Tshi Language . . .
The Old Testament (p. 783), Basel, 1871, bound up with

*27. The New Testament (p. 255), Basel, 1870.

9. The Four Gospels (p. 285). London, 1859.

10. The Acts of the Apostles (p. 87). Basel, 1859.

18. Genesis. ^9. Romans, I-IIl. John, Revelation. Stuttgart, 1861.

20. /. IL Corinth. Galat. Ephes. to //. Thessal. Stuttgart, 1862.

21. /. Timoth. to Jude. Stuttgart, 1863.

*23. The Four Gospels, 2d ed. (p. 276.) Basel, 1864.
*26. The Psalms and Proverbs (p. 205. 70). Basel, 1865.

III. Books for the School, Church and Family.

1-4. Spelling and Reading Books (pp.36, 14, 159,48). Basel, 184?
1845. 1846. 1850.

13. Six large cards, for writing and reading. Basel, 1859.

12. A Primer, together with a Collection of Scripture Passages (p. 68).
Basel, 1859.

*31. Primer for the Vernacular Schools in Akuapem, Akem ... 2d ed.
(p. 88). Basel, 1872.

7. Dr. Barth's Bible Stories (p. 2. 192., with wood-cuts). Stuttgart,
1856.

LISTS OF BOOKS. IX

8. Appendices: Corrections; On the Orthoffraphy of the Lan(jua(]e;
A Frayer read in Church; A Catechism of Christian Doctrine
(p. 12). Stuttgart, 1857.

*29. Dr. BartKs Bible Stories, 2d ed. (p, 2. 186. with many illustra-
tions). Basel, 1871.

*17. (Arnold's) Bible Stories for Little Children (p. 75, with wood-
cuts). Basel, 1862.

16. T)ie History of our Lord's Passion (p. 31). Stuttgart, 1861.

22. A Catechism of the Christian Doctrine, and

Select Scripture Passages (p. 84). Stuttgart, 1864.

*33. Words for Learning and Praying, — containing

I. A Catechism of the Christian Doctrine, II. Select Scripture
Passages, III. The History of our Lord's Passion, IV — VI. Some
Prayers at the Sunday Services, for Family and Private Wor-
ship, and for School-children (p. 2. 175). Basel, 1872.

\\. A UymnbooTc, containing 193 Hymns (p. 328). Stuttgart, 1859.

*24. Liturgy and Hymns containing I. Common Prayer, Litany, Order
and Manner of Baptism, Confirmation (with a Catechism, called
Confirmation-Book), Administration of the Lord's Supper, Solemni-
zation of Matrimony and the Burial of the Dead; II. 236 Hymns
in theAkuapem dialect, 15 native Fante Songs ; p. 339). Basel 1865.

25. Stidutes and Liturgy of the German Evangelical Mission Churches
on the Gold Coast (Statutes, p. 3-43; the rest of the Liturgy,
containing different Prayers and Thanksgivings in the Church
and the Order of Consecration of Catechists or Deacons and
Ministers or Priests, p. 44-87). Basel, 1865.

30. liegulations for Catechists (p. 18). Basel, 1871.

*34. The Doctrines of the Christian Meligion, based on Dr. Luther's
smaller Catechism, by J. //. Kurtz, D. D., translated (with an
Appendix on the Ecclesiastical Year and Lists of Bible Lessons;
p. 4. 135). Basel, 1872.

14. TunebooJc to the Otji and Akra Hymnbooks (p. 12. 48.). Basel, 1 860.

38. Tunes to the Tshi and Akra Hymnhooks, supplementary to the
Choralbook for Wirtemberg, 2d ed. (p. 16. 76). Basel, 1874.

*32. Instruction in Arithmetic, (p. 3. 175). Basel, 1872.
42. Examples for the School-Arithmetic in Tshi (the printing of the
manuscript has been postponed).

*15. Tables of General History (p. 24). Stuttgart, 1861.
*37. Stories from General History (p. 11. 244). Basel, 1874.

III. Tracts.

*40/ Man's Heart, either God's Temple or Satan's Abode, represented
in 10 figures (p. 55). Basel, 1874.

*35. The Orphan's Letter to his Saviour in Heaven (p. 8). Basel, 1 873.

•36. Oguyomiy the Negro Girl at Ibadan (p. 16). Basel, 1873.

•48. The Spread of Christianity in Germany (p. 56). Basel, 1875.

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

ON THE LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS OF THE GOLD COAST,
their Extent and Position among other Languages.

§ 1. The Dialects of Tshi: Akan and Fante.
Enumeration of the Countries in ivliicli they are spoken.

The principal Language of the Gold Coast and its inland countries,
of wliich a Grammar is presented in this book, comprehends both
Akdn and F^nte dialects. Akdn is chiefly represented by As ant 6
and Akem, and in purity, extent and importance prevails so much
over the Fante dialects, that we might even use this name as the
common name of the Language instead of Tshi. Before discussing
tliis question about the name (in § 3), we shall enumerate the different
countries and dialects of this language, in five groups, beginning at
the western corner of the Gold Coast and preceding to the east and
inland.

A. Akan Dialects are spoken in the western part of the Gold
Coast in the following countries.

1. Asini, Kwantiabo, Anka, Afuma, see § 6 B 1.

2. Amanahia (Apollonia)^ from the lagoons and outlets of the river
Tandg or Tanno to the Ankobra River.

3. Awini (Awenc, Aowin), to the north of Amanahia.

4. Ahanta, between and partly beyond the rivers Ankobra and
Pra. On the coast the districts of Axim &c., Akoda and Dixcove or
Mfuma are included; Ahanta itself reaches from Busua to Secondee or
Sakiinne.

The Akan dialects of these countries do not seem to be as pure as
the inland dialects to the north-east of them, and in parts of Ahanta
other indigenous dialects seem to be used besides.

5. Wasa (Wasaw), along the northern and eastern borders of Ahanta,
extending to the sea-coast near Sakunde, and reaching as far as Aka-
taki (British Commenda), The Wasas are said to have first found
gold and to have once been superior to the Asantes; they belong to
the Guan tribes (cf. § 5 A 1. 3.), but have adopted the Akan language.

6. Tshuforo (Tshiforo, Twiforo, orig. Kwiforo, also written JuffeVj
Tufel); this is a smaller tribe to the north-east of Wasa, speaking a
genuine Akdn dialect.

INTRODUCTORY NOTES. XI

7, D6nkyera (Dankara, Denkera, Dinkira &c.), was a once power-
ful tribe to the north of Wasa and south-west of Asante. The Asantes,
first subject to tliem, subjugated them in their turn about the year
1719, when Asante became the most powerful nation of the Gold Coast
countries. Reduced by subsequent wars with Asante, the Denkeras
at last emigrated and settled in the Fante country between Wasa and
Abora, having for their capital Dwokwa (Juquali^ about 12 miles
north of Elmina, taken by the Asantes in 1873).

B. 1'he Fante Dialect's, occupying the middle part of the Gold
Coast, 80 to 100 miles between the rivers Pra and Sakumo, and ex-
tending 20 to 25 miles inland, are spoken in the following countries
and districts.

1. The district of Komane (the formerly Dutch Commenda) and
Aguafo, bordering on Wasa (A 5) in the west and north-west.

2. The town of Elmina or Dend (Odena, Edena).

3. The Afutu Country, with Caj^e Coast or Gua (Ogua, Egua).

4. Fante proper, with the capitals Anamahoe or Onomabo
(Euomabow) on the coast, and Mankesem, a few miles inland. —

To the Fante country in a wider sense belong Afutu (No. 3) and
the six following districts.

5. Abora, to the north of Afutu and Fante proper, with the capital
Abakrampa.

6. Agylmak5, to the north-east of No. 5.

7. Akomfi, to the east of No. 4-6, with the capital Tiiam (Tan-
ium) on the coast.

8. Gomo4 (Dwommod), with the coast-town Apilm or A pa, and
the capital Gomoa Asen, on the Amai'ikwade hills some miles inland.

9. The Agon a Country's, south-eastern part, with the coast-towns
Winnehah or Sim pa, Bereku, Sanya and the capital Nsaba,
20 miles inland.

10. The Agona Country's north-western part with the capital As£-
kama, to the north-east of Nr. 6.

On the Akra country and language, to the east of No. 9, cf. § 5 B.

On remnants of another language in the districts No. 7-9, cf. § h A.

C. Akan Dialects are spoken in the following countries of the
eastern part of the British Protectorate (as it was formerly called).

1. Asen, lying to the north of Abora (B 5) and to the east of
Twiforo (A 6). One half of this tribe formerly dwelled on tlie northern
ade of the river Pra, but when they threw off tlie Asante rule, their
eoontry to the north of the Pra was left to lie waste, and the river
WIS made the boundary.

8. Ak^m Kotokii, a tribe that emigrated from Asante (after 1S30)
•ad settled within the territories of Abiiakwa (No. 3). The capital is
Akem 86aduru in Western Ahem, bordering on an Asante province
ii tbe north (Dadease?). Formerly part of this tribe was settled in the

XII INTRODUCTORY NOTES.

north of Eastern Akem, at Gyadam, between Asiakwa and Begoro,
but king Agyeman left that town and neighbourhood in 18G0, in order
to terminate the quarrels with Ata IL, the king of Akem Abiikkwa.
Their dialect is rather Asante than Akem.

3. Akem Ahuhkw a (Eastern Ahem) ^ borders on Asikuma, Agona
and Akuapem in the south. U^he king dwells at Kyebi; his dukes
are the chiefs at Aky6aso, far in the west (perhaps bordering on
Asen, near Soaduru and Asikuma) and at Senase near As am ah
in the south, at Kukurantimi in the east, and at Asiakwa and
Begoro in the north. — Akem is an extensive country, but thinly
populated; the tribe, once powerful and renowned, has been much re-
duced by former wars with Asante and the laziness of the men. Their
dialect is considered the purest and nicest Akan dialect.

4. Akuapem, on the Akuapem mountains from Berekuso (bordering
on Akra) to Krobo, and in the broad vale along their northwestern
side. The people are of a threefold origin: a. Indigenous Akdns,
atAburi, Afwerase, Berekuso; h. Akdns from Akem, the king with
(part of) the inhabitants of Akropong and Amannokrom; c. of Guah
descent (cf. § 5, A l):*aa. Mampong, in the midst between Aburi and
Akropong, with four other townships, Tutu and Asant^mma (Obosom-
ase) on the Aburi side, Abotaki and Mamfe on the Akropong side;
hh. two Date towns, Ahenase and Kubease; GC, five Kyerepong
towns, Abiriw, Odawu, Awukugua with Abonse, Adukrom, Apirede.
The towns under aa. have since about 1750 entirely exchanged their own
language with Akan; those under bh. and cc. have retained their own
language, besides speaking Akan. — When Akuapem goes to war,
the duke of Aburi leads the van, one party of the Akropongs under
their own duke forms the centre, and another party of them with the
king is in the rear; the Kyerepongs under the duke of Adukroin
form the right wing, and the remaining 7 townships under the duke
of Date form the left wing. — A similar organisation is met with in
other Akan and Fante countries, so that in every one the king has
four to six chiefs of the principal towns as his dukes, and these again
have the chiefs of all the minor towns subordinate to them.

5. Akwam', the small remnant of the once mighty and warlike
Akwambu nation, now occupying the banks and especially the eastern
side of the river Volta (or Firaw) from Senkye to Pese, speaking an
indigenous Akan dialect.

6. Kamana, a small tribe to the north-west of, and belonging to
Akwam; they are said to be the parent tribe of the Kwawu people
(DILI.), speaking an Akan dialect not acknowledged as pure and
therefore called Apotokdn.

D. Akan Dialects are spoken in the confederate and subject
provinces of the Asante kinc/dom, as it existed before the burning of
Kumase by the English in 1874.

I. The confederate provinces, which constitute Asante proper, are
the following:

INTRODUCTORY NOTES. XIII

1. Atwoma (Atshoma, named from the red clay of which the soil
consists), with the capital Kiimase.

2. Sekyere, with the capitals Dwaben (Juahen) to the east, and
Mampgh to the north-east of Kumase.

3. Kokofii, with its capital having the same name, to the south-east.

4. Amanse, with the capital B e k w a e, to the south-west.

5. Kwabiri, with the capital Mamponten, to the west.

6. Nsiita, the capital having the same name, to the north.

The five principal towns of Asante proper, which are sometimes
spoken of as Akdm-mane nnum, i\\Q Five Akan States ^ are Okum-
ase, Odwaben, Kokofii, Bekwae, and Omampgii or Nsiitd.

(The prefix o- in three of these and in other names is usually omitted.)

To these provinces of Asante proper we add

7. Adanse, with the capital Fomana, to the south.

II. The subject jwovinces^ called Bronfo, having Asante law and
Asante rights, are the following:

1. Kwawu, including Kwawu Kodiabc or Asante Akem,
to the east of Asante proper, with the towns Aguago, Kodiabe, Abetifi.

2. Burom, capital Takiman, to the north-east, extending to the
Volta, where it is joined by

3. Worawora, to the east of that river (?).

4. Nkordnsa (which is also the name of the capital), to the N. N. E.,
a seven days' journey from Kumase; the people are of the same origin
as the Asantes, but have antique forms in their language.

To this we probably have to join the two following provinces:

5. Kardkye; these people are said to be from Date (cf. C 4 c. 6/>.)
and speak their own language besides Tshi.

6. Ntwumuru (Ntshimuru), of which the name already, as well
as the language, points to Tshi origin. —

Turning now to the west, we find mentioned:

7. A besim, to the N. W., not far from the tributary state of Gyaman.

8. Manosu, to the west, with gold mines.

9. Ahafo, to the S. W., with extensive forests, from which divers
kinds of venison and also snails, all dried, are brought to Kumase.

10. Dadease is mentioned as a province in the south; perhaps it
belongs to Kokofu (as Sokore in the east to Dwaben?).

11. Safwi (Sahivi, Sawee), to the S. S. W., about a week's journey
or 120 miles from Kumase, bordering on Wasa and Awini and the
countries on the western side of the river Tando, may rather be called
tributary than subject to Asante.

E. Akan Dialects are also spoken in countries to the north of
Asante^ either tributary to, or without connection with Asante.

1 . On the tributary countries, see § 2.

2. Trubi is said by J. Clarke to be a country "to the north of
Ashanti and near to Moshi (cf. § 2,) among the Kong mountains;"

XIV INTRODUCTORY NOTES.

or, "behind Dahoray, towards Yoruba.** The numerals and other
specimens of the language given by Clarke are Akdn, but a few Guan
words are admixed, from which we may infer, that Trubi is in a
similar case as Karakye (cf. D II. 5.), if not identical with, or belonging
to it.

3. Kyerehi, with the towns of Bowuru, Aposg, Apdf6, Bor&da,
Totorom^, and many others, is a country behind Worawora, to the
cast of the upper Volta, perhaps far to the north of Dahome, not
connected with Asante, but the language is Akan.*

§ 2. Countries and Languages to the North of Asante,

Before returning to the Gold Coast Languages, we insert names
and notices of other countries and languages in the steppe to the
north of Asante<, called Serem (Sarem), or beyond it, several of which
countries, partly inhabited by Mohammedans, were tributary to Asante.

1. Gyi^man with its capital Buntuku, a ten days' journey to the
N. N. W. of Kumase, beyond the river Tanno, bordering on Koiio
(Kong) to the north, with gold mines. It has a language of its own,
but Akan is largely understood from the frequent intercourse.

2. Ban da or Banna to the north of Kumase and north-west of
Nkoransii.

3. Nta, a populous country with the great market-town S^lagha
or Saraha, perhaps 170, or, according to Boivdich, 250 miles to the
north-east of Kumase, a good day's journey from the other side of
the Volta. Daboya is the second town in size. The numerals of
Nta, as given by Soivdich, are nearly the same as in Tshi.

4. Anwa or Awonwa and Dagomba or Dagdmma (SowdicJi:
Yngwa, Dagwumba), with the large town of Ycnde (Ycnne, Yane,
Yiini), a 4 to 5 days' journey to the north-east of Salaga. The language
is similar to that of Mosi (see below No. 5).

Rem, 1. The inhabitants of No. 1. 3. 4. are Mohammedans, at least in
the large towns ; the country people of Dagdmma may still be heathen.
Gyaman, Nta and Dagomba are said by JBoivdich to have been
rendered tributary by Osei Opoku (1731-1742); but Gyaman especially,
afterwards repeatedly rose in war against Asante, and was reported
in 1866 as having become independent. In Anw^ the Mohammedans
in 1873 (about 1 July) treacherously blew up with gunpowder several
Asante messengers. — Ban da is recorded as having been engaged
in war with Asante under Osei Akwasi (1742-1752) and Osei Kwame

*Rice is the chief food there; iron is got from the ore by melting; houses ai*e
built with long beams of the odum tree (which is also used in building by^thc
missionaiies in Akuapem). — A young man that had been brought thence, with his
hand fastened to a block of wood for tlu-oe months, till ho arrived and was sold
as slave at Akropong, was astonished to find himself, after so long a journey, among
people of the same language. The writer of this spoke with him shortly before h(^
left for Europe in 1858, but was soiTy to find him no more alive when he had
returned to Akroi)ong.

INTRODUCTORY K0TE8. XV

(1781-1797) and as having been destroyed by the Moslem king of
Ghofan (?), who was repulsed by the Asantes between 1800 and 1807.

Hem. J2. Nta has been considered by some as the place of origin
of all Tslii tribes; but the Tshi people themselves use Otdni, pi. Ntdfo
(in contrast with Okanni, Akdnfo, which denote the pure Tshi
people) for the potofo of Serem and almost equally to Odonko or
Odgiikonf, plur. Nngnkofo, from Nngnkg, which denotes all the
nations and tribes of the interior not speaking Tshi, many of whom
are Mohammedans.

Of tribes in Serem and neighbourhood, an informant in Kyebi
(Akem, 1866) named the following: Pkmi, Mfunar^, Nnose, Mpampa-
ma(fo). Others add as 'Ntafo amah (countries of the Nta people)''
Koho (cf. No. 1), Kuriisi, Woromra and even Nkonlnsa (DII, 4), besides
those mentioned under No. 1 . 3. 4. and hereafter under No. 5 and 6.

5. M6si seems to be a large country to the north of Asante and
its dependencies, from which, either by wars, or by caravans coming
to Salaga, many slaves are brought to Asante. On the language see
No. 4. The people of Mosl and Sdha are said to be heathen. Other
countries in the neighbourhood of Mosi are: MozAnze, Bdno, Kuluga
(Heathens) and Y^reg^ (Mohammedans), speaking a diflFcrent language;
Gamara (Moham.) and Gurumd. These names were obtained, in 1858,
from a former slave from Mozanze, who became a Christian at Akropong.

6. Mariwd, Marawa, Marowa (Boivd. Mallowa), is the Tshi name
for Hausa. Hausa slaves, brought by caravans to the market at
Sahlga, are met with also in Akuapem ; some Hausas fought in the
Asjinte war (1874) on the Asante side, whilst others, that had once
been slaves in Asante, fought under the English.

^ 3, Names of the Language: Tshi, Amina, Akan,

1. As a common name of the ^Asante and Fante Language' we have

put down the name Tshi, which, however, presents difficulties for the

pronunciation and writing by Europeans. It was originally Kwi (or,

with a prefix, Ekwi, Okwi); the 'k' was changed by the influence of

the succeeding *i' (sounding as in 'field^) into the sound of ^ch' in

*(keese\ yet mitigated by the 'w' blended with it. Ilence if. ^. Riis

vrote in English 'Oji\ in German ^Odschi\ but within the language

lie wrote *Tyi', which (in 1869) was changed into *Twi'; instead

of rendering this in English by 'Chwee\ we preferred to write *Tshi^

10 harmony with the German writing *Tschi'. — The name Tshi, or

T^irl, is not only used by the natives themselves, but also by the Akras

ttd the tribes to the east of the Volta, in the form Otsui. Fidivin

Ncrris, on the authority of W. A. Hanson, noted down * Otsui' as

&e language of Ashanti &c *

♦The prefix of Etwi, as name of the language, is better omitted.
Ib the compounds Otwini, a 2shi man, pi. Atwifo, and Otwikasii, Tshi

XVI INTEODUCTORY NOTES.

2. Another name which is found to have been used for the language
in question, is A m in a. Ch. ProUen in the preface to his Grammatical
Introduction into Fante and Acra, Copenhagen, 1764, calls the former
repeatedly the * Fante or Amina Language', and finally resolves to use
the name Fante, only on account of its being known to the Europeans.
Oldendorp^ in the geographical and linguistic information gathered
from the slaves on the Danish islands of S. Thomas, S. Croix and
S.Jan (1767, 22 Mai, to 1768, 23 Oct.), uses the name Amina instead
of Asante about thirty times; only once the name Assent! is found.
Cf. the list given above on page VI, A c 7.

He says: "With the Fante, Akkim, Akkran, Beremang, Assein,
Kisscru (?), Atti (the former name of Abora ?), Okkau and Adansi,
they have almost continual wars, the sole cause of which is kidnapp-
ing . . . One tribe of the Amina, the Quahu, kills many elephants."
(This 'Quahu' and the above 'Okkau' are the same name Okwawu,
§ 1 DII 1.) I'he Akkran (Akra, Ga, in those times subject to Asante),
are said to belong to, and the Tambi (= Adampe, Adanme), to border
with the Amina and to understand their language, beside speaking
their own (cf. § 5 B).

Clarhe also knows the name Amina, but places it "to the east of
Ashanti" or "near to Akim". Under 'Fanti' he says: "The dialect of
Fante is called Fetu, or the Amina Tongue". — To revive this name
Amina, can, however, not be recommended.

3. The Fantes are likely to object to the adoption of the generic
name T wi (or Kwi, as they would say) as a ujime including Fante,
because they do not use it so, and likewise to the name Akdn, be-
cause they apply it only to the inland dialects in contradistinction of
the *Fanti or Mfantsi language', as they call their own dialects. But
Fante and Akan cannot be considered as two distinct languages ; though
both of them be subdivided in secondary dialects, they are only bran-
ches of a common stem, or Akan may be considered rather as the
main trunc, and Fante as a side branch. Whoever likes an unmis-
takable, easily pronounced name, may prefer Akdn, comprising within
this appellation the Fante class of dialects; but as we shrink from
introducing changes which may provoke fresh criticisms, we stick to
the generic appellation of the Tshi language.

language (from gkasd, language)^ the prefix is *o', but even this often
falls off. — The syllable twi is also found in the names Twuforo
(foro = new)^ and probably Ntwumuru (§1 A 6; D II 6; *i' before m, f,
becomes *u'); in Twidam (Boivdkh: Tcliweedam, Beecham: Chudan),
the name of one of the original families of the nation; in etwi, kur6-
twlamitnsa, names of the leopard &c.

UJTRODUCTORY NOTES. XVII

§ 4. The Liiet-ary DiiUeot, based on the Dialed of Akuapem,
as heifif) iniermediale beliveen the Akan and Fanle Dialects.

j The chief language of the Gold Coast stands not only in want of
a generic name universally recognized; the question which dialect is
to have the mastery iji its literal are too is to be solved.

When Sir Garnet J. WoUeley addressed his summons from Capo
Coast, Oct. 13th, 1873, to the king of Asanto, it was at first intended
to have the letter sent in AsauU^ and English; but then only it was
discovered **that no proper written representation of the Fante or
I Asaute dialect existed.** This prevented the dispatch of the summons
for nearly a fortnight. But a real transliteration of the Tsbi language
had for some time been in existence, which, though not immediately
based on the Asante or any Fante dialect, would perfectly have an-
swered the requirements of the case. We mean the transliteration of
the Akuapem dialect, which will be the most eligible foundation for
a Tshi literature, though as yet hardly known, much less tried, by
the educated Fantes who were hitherto accustomed only to English
books and orthography. 'J'he orthography ingrafted on the English
language in the course of its historical development, but inconsistent
in itself and with the actual pronunciation, and defective as that of
no other literate language, cannot be made the foundation for reducing
& hitherto unwritten language to writing, as has been tried in the
Mfantsi Grammar by D, L. Carr and «/. P. Brown, Cape Coast, 1868,
by which the authors thought to "confer upon the Nation the rights
of having its language added to the catalogue of written languages.**

Rem^ The said publication and its orthography, compared with the

system of sounds as represented in this grammar, may well serve as

an illustration, that in writing Tshi, be it called Fante or Akan, we

can confine ourselves neither to the fundamental principles of English

orthography, nor to the number of letters of the English or Koman

Alphabet, nor to the Missionary Alphabet proposed by Prof. Max

Midler, in which Italics are employed to express additional sounds:

bnt that we must resort either to additional letters or to diacritical

signs added to the lloman letters; and in this we could certainly not

have done anything better than adopt Lepsius' Standard Alphabet,

which is so widely employed for African languages that it may be

considered as the graphic system essential to them. I'hat printing

offices must have an additional set of letters besides those used in

English, is an unavoidable consequence; but the diacritical marks are

neither so copious, nor so troublesome, as those of Arabic writing.

With regard to the question, which of the existing Tshi dialects is
to be chosen for literary purposes, we submit the following remarks.

XVIII INTRODUCTORY NOTES.

It would certainly be desirable from a scientific point of view, that
more than one dialect be thoroughly investigated and truly represented, h
yea even that different dialects be cultivated and the folklore of each t
(proverbs, songs, popular and historical tales &c.) diligently collected
by different writers, as in ancient Greece the Ionic, Aeolic, Doric and
Attic dialects did co-exist. But as these different dialects in process
of time gave way to a Common Dialect, so the tribes of the Gold Coast
stand in need of a common book-language, if the matter be considered
from a practical point of view. The Akan and Fante dialects do not
differ so much as those ancient Greek or as the different English and
German dialects, neither are they spoken by as many individuals.
And when more than forty millions of Germans enjoy a common book-
language, half a million of Fantes may more easily be brought to
unite with three millions of Akans in the use of a common Bible and
a common medium of communication by writing.

The dialects of Fante, compared with those of Akem and Asante,
are indeed deteriorated dialects of the same language, less clear and
distinct than they, and, according to concurring testimonies of ancient
and recent dates, less agreeable to the ear. Another point is, that within
the Fante dialects there are differences greater than those obtaining be-
tween Asante, Akem and Akuapem; e. g. the word ase, under ^ occurs
in the three forms ade, adze, ase, whilst As. and Aky. have ase
and asee, and Akuap. only ase; cf. § 293, 16. iJe/w. i. ^.

The writers of the ^Mfantsi Grammar' admit the correctness of the
statement of H. N. Hiis^ that the difference between the Akan and
Fante dialects is not so great as to prevent a Fanteman conversing
without difficulty with an inhabitant of Asante or Akuapem, and vice
versa^ and add: "There is even in the Mfantsi language so many a
borrowed word or expression from the Akan language, that the purity
of the former language must have been rendered questionable, or the
latter may claim to be pointed to as having the radical key of the
two tongues." (Preface pag. 6. 7.) Again, on the second point, viz. the
differences among the Fante dialects, the same authors say (Pref.p. 13.); |
"The Kingdoms of Gomua, Enumabu and Abura, in oratorical skir- |
mishes, may contest the point of a Metropolitan standard for the Mfantsi
language; but the drawn sword of Provincialism, by which the Dialect
of one District is bounded on each side by the Dialects of other
Districts, can only have to be sheathed back again to rest in the
mutual retreat of the bearers. We may as well fix our speech to the I
idioms of Igua, (that is. Cape Coast,) seeing that the Orthography of ^
one District may be taken as a criterion for all the others." These |
words point as well to the diversity as to the jealousy obtaining
among those Fante dialects, whilst the Akan dialects, though spoken
on territories of much greater extent and of tribes that were for a
long time hostile to each other, are less inclined to divergencies, and
better agree with each other.

I

INTRODUCTORY NOTES. XIX

We grant to every existing dialect its right of existence, and are
glad of every faithful representation on paper of any dialect or speci-
men of such, like the quoted Mfantsi Grammar, though the orthography
adopted in it must be considered as a failure for practical purposes.
But it seems to us, that neither the dialect of Cape Coasts nor any
other Fante dialed^ not even the purest of them, that of Anamahoe^
is fit to form the base of a literary language for the Akan and Fante
tribes. Ought we,- then, not to take the Asante dialect or the AJkem
dialect for this purpose? The choice is made already, enforced, indeed,
by casual events and circumstances, but which, after all, have some-
thing providential, — and will, for a considerable time, prove to be
the best that could have been made. It is the dialect of Akuapcm
that has actually been made the base of a common dialect; a literary
language has been created, and such a common dialect is now existing
in the Bible and dozens of other printed books, as well as manuscripts
and letters of many individuals since more than two decenniums.
What are the merits of this dialect? It is an Akan dialect influenced
Inf Fante, steering a middle course between other Akan dialects and
Fante, in sounds, forms and expressions; it admits peculiarities of both
branches as far as they do not contradict each other, and is, therefore,
best capable of being enriched from both sides. H. N. Hiis has truly
remarked, that, if the language should receive literary cultivation, the
differences of the dialects will be no impediment to its development,
but they will be subservient rather to its enrichment. This is actually
the case. The native missionary David Asante^ who took and still
takes a considerable share in the literary cultivation of the Tshi
language and its development, remarks in a letter of Sept. 1874, that
'the Akuapems are accustomed to embellish their spoken dialect by
blending it with Akem expressions, that AJcuapem easily admits of
enrichment and admixture from Akem and even Fante, and Fante
also admits and receives such foreign elements ; but if the same should
be done in the Akem dialect, it would not sound welF.

Of. what is said of the Akuapem dialect in ^A Dictionary, English,
Tshi (Asante), Akra'; Basel, 1874, pag. IX-XI.

On the nature of the differences between the Akem, Akuapem and
Fante dialects, we refer to the Appendix III. on the Dialects,

Should however a Homer arise in any of the other dialects, the
Tshi tribes may all be brought to bow to him and acknowledge the
superiority of his diction ; in the mean time it seems the most rational
way to build on the foundation laid, not by any transcendent inspi-
ration, but by the conscientious and painful labour of those who first
succeeded in writing the language and teaching thousands of Africans
to use it in literary intercourse.

XX INTRODUCTORY NOTES.

§ 5. Other Languages apoken in the Gold Count Countries.

Other Languages spoken tvilhin the territories of the Gold Coast,
besides Tshi, are A. the Giiafi language, and dialects or languages
similarly circumstanced, and B. the Akra or Ga language and kin-
dred dialects.

A. Of a language and its dialects, or of distinct languages which
in former times seem to have been extensively spoken throughout the
Gold Coast countries, but were in most places supplanted and super-
seded by the language of the ascending Tshi tribes, the following
remnants and vestiges are to be mentioned.

1. The Guan language is still used
a. In Akuapem: aa. in the two towns of Date (G^: Late, Guan:

Lcte) and bh. in the five Kyerepong towns, a by-name of which,
Am annuo num, is interpreted, "amdn aduoniim, flfti/ towns*^^ — so
many they are said once to have been — ; but perhaps the interpreta-
tion "amannu^-aniim, five hr other-towns'^ is also possible. (Jn the five
towns between Akropong and Aburi, mentioned in § 1 C 4 6', aa, that
language has been given up entirely.)

6. Tn Anum, beyond the Volta, to the north-eastward of Akwam.
This dialect is not much different from that of Date and Kyerepong.

The formation of nouns and their plural, in Guan, and the inflexion
of the verb, agree much with those in ^I'shi; among the sounds used
in the language we find the kp, gb, nm and 1 of the Akra language;
the stock of words is partly different from Tshi as well as Akra,
partly borrowed from these two neighbouring languages, especially from
'J'shi. There are scarcely any points of special contact with the Ev^e.

c. In Karakye the same language is said to exist as in Date, the
people being of Date descent; but as they have been separated from
each other for a long time, their dialects will now probably differ. —
In Trubi (§ 1 E 2) we have likewise found vestiges of a Guan dialect

2. The Obutu language is found, as we are informed, in the follow-
ing coast-towns of Agona, Gomoa and Akomfi (§ 1 B 9. 8. 7.): Sanyi
Afutu Beroku, Simpa (Winnehah), A pa, and probably Dago or
Lagu, Elegu, near Tu^m to the east-ward.

3. Whether the dialect or language is the same in the towns men-
tioned under No. 2, and in what relation Obutu stands to Guan,
and likewise, whether the former language of the Wasas (§ 1 A 5)
was really Guan, we are as yet unable to tell. The dialects that are
spoken in the Ah ant a country besides the Akan language (§1 A^)
are likewise unknown to us.

4
i

iNTRODUCTOUy NOTE8. XXI

B. The Houth-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by the
Akra or Ga lauguage.

1. The dialect of Ga proper, in which the Bible and many other
books are printed, bej^jins already in the eastern part of the Agon a
country, the coast-town of Nye ny an 6 being half Fante, half Akra,
and is spoken by about 40,000 people in the coast-towns Ga and
Kink a or British and Dutch Akra (in Tshi: Nkrah and Kankan),
Osu (Christiansborg)^ La (or Dade), Tesi and Nuhwa (Ningua),
and in the numerous inland villages belonging to them and extending
to the borders of Akem and Akuapem. — A branch of the Ga dialect
is spoken at Popo and Whidah by people whose ancestors emigrated
from Akra, when the Akwambus conquered and destroyed their towns
in 1680, as far as they have not adopted the language of Whidah.

2. Ada lime dialects of the Akra language are spoken by about
80,000 people a. in the coast towns Tema, Kpong (Fonij^ Gbu-
gbra (Kpukpra, Prampram)^ Nuno (Ningq) and their inland villages;
6. at Ada (from which the name AdAnme = Adclgbe, Ada language);
C. on the Sai (Siade) and Osudoku mountains; d. at Asa ds ale (Asu-
twaree) and Kpong on the Volta; e. in the Krg or Krobo country.
A branch of the Adanme dialect is also spoken by the Agotirae
tribe to the east of the Volta, between the Aweno and Adaglu tribes
of the Ewe (E(/^e) nation, with three principal towns.

The dialect of Krobo is the oldest, that of Ga the youngest dialect;
the latter has largely borrowed from Akuapem and Fante.

§ 6. Neighbouring Languages.

Languages spoken on the borders or in the neighbourhood of the
territories of the Gold Coasts besides those in the interior to the north
of Asante, mentioned in § 2, are the following ;

A. In the East of the Gold Coast territories the Ewe (E(^e) language
is spoken in 9 towns on the western banks of the Volta between Ada
and Asutsare, and in the countries to the east of that river, by the
tribes of Anlo (Anwona, ^ww///a^, Aweno, Adaglu, II o, and many
others. (For the countries to the cast of the lower Volta, the name
Krepe is used by the Europeans.) Dialects of the same language
are spoken in Dahome and almost the whole territory between the
Volta and the countries of the Yoruba language. Ewe is a language
akin to Tshi (cf. § 7 A I& 2 and C), but not in close affinity; we find
in it several words and proper names, especially those denoting the
week-day of the birth of a child, borrowed from Tshi.

B. In the West of the Gold Coast territories we find closer affinities
with Tshi, than in the east.

XXII INTRODUCTORY NOTES.

1. The Asini or Atakla country, capital Kinjdbo or Kwantiabo,
and the inland countries Anka and Afuma, on both sides of the
river Tando or Tanng, (which is one of the fetishes of the Tshi nation).
From the geographical names we may conclude that the language ot
these countries has at least affinities with Tshi.

6r. Loyer (1701) gives a prayer of the natives at Asini, containing 23 words, of
which 18 or 20 ai'e pui-e Tsni. But most of other names of persons &c. are not
Tshi. Loyer speaks, however, of three different tribes in Asini, and their wars and
migrations in 1600 and 1670.

2. On the Ivory Coast we meet with several names as mentioned
in the ^African Pilot' vol. I pag. 130-132., which contain unmistakably
Tshi words ; e. g. Jirooni Hook, Ensoii Point, Ahrapa, Enframa Pointy
Drewin Ehbiensa (biironi, white man, nsu, water, mframa, wind, abiesa,
three); the said names may, however, have been furnished by natives
of the Gold Coast on European ships.

3. Avikum, is, according to Clarke, the name of the people at
Grand Cape Lahou, Ivory Coast. The names of ten tribes dwelling
thereabout, and of others farther inland to the source of the Joliba
or Niger, have partly prefixes, and are, therefore, in affinity rather
with the Tshi, than with the Kru language spoken about Cape Pal-
mas and on the Grain or Liberia Coast; six of tlie Avikum numerals
from 1 to 10, given by Clarke, to some degree resemble those in Tshi.

§ 7. The Position of Tshi among the African Languages,

As to the position which the Tshi language holds among the African
languages in general, there is no doubt that it belongs to that great
stock of languages which have been termed Prefix-pronominiil Lan-
guages^ the principal characteristic of which is the employment of
prefixes in the formation, classification and pluralization of nouns and
in representing them (before other parts of speech).

A. These Prefix-pronominal Languages, according to Dr. W, II. L
Bleek*, include the Bh-ntu, Mena and 6for families.

I. The Bantu Family has two divisions, a. the South- African and
b, the West- African.

a. The South-African Division extends over the continent south of
the equator, only the languages of the Hottentots, Bushmen and II-
oigob being excepted, and some degrees to the north of it, on the
west coast to the Cameroons and Romby mountains, including the
island of Fernando Po. It has several branches and subdivisions.

*Cf. Handbook of Aft'ican &c. Philology, as represented in the Library of Sir
G. Grey, vol. I. part 1. 2., by Dr. W. H. I. Bleek. London, Tnibncr & Co.

INTRODUCTORY NOTES. XXIII

1), The West' African Dinision has throe hranches: 1. the Nifjer

Branchy comprising theEfik, Ibo, Nufi, Yoruba &c. 2. the Volta Branchy

comprising the E\ve (E(^e) or Dahome, and the Tshi and Giiaii ; 3. tlie

Sierra Leone Branch, comprising the Temne, Biillom, Sherbro. 'J'he

languages of the Niger and Volta branches have the prefixes no more

to the same extent as the South-African division and the Sierra I^eone

branch, and the differences between the single hinguages reckoned to

the same branch are greater. Whilst the Efik has preserved a good

Qumber of prefixes and the pluralization by prefixes (though the latter

is already much neglected), the Yoruba has less formative prefixes and

has altogether lost the formation of the plural by prefixes. I'he Ewe

has only two prefixes left, consisting of the vowels 'a' and *e' (of

which 'a' sometimes, and *('* usually, falls off when the noun joins a

preceding word), and forms the plural of nouns by a suffix; but in

Tshi the prefixes arc again used for classification and pluralization;

only to a very limited degree suffixes are employed in forming the plural.

IL Whether the A k r a language (§ 5 B) is indeed to be separated

from the Ba-ntu and classed with the 'Gor Family' (to which Dr. Blcek

also reckons the Fula and Wolof and the Fumalc language), may be

questioned, as the existence of prefixes and the formation of the plural

are found in it as in the Ewe, and many other features as in Ewe

and Tshi.

III. The K r u language, of which the Gedebo (Grebo) and Basa
are dialects and which Dr. Bleek mentions under the ^Mena Family \
has no formative prefixes at all, and the plural is formed by changes
in the termination of nouns.

B. The rest of the African languages belong to the so-called Suffix-
pronominal Langua(jes,

I. To the Sex-denoting Family of them belong in South Africa the
languages of the Hottentots and Bushmen, in North Africa (as the
Semitic Branch) the Hausa and Temashirt (Berber), the Galla, Dankali,
Somali, Harari, the Amharic and Arabic, and, besides, the 11-oigob
language.

II. To these Suffix-pronominal languages are added the Mande-Teda
languages; e. g. in North Africa the Bornu (Kanuri) and Teda, in
West Africa the Mande, Bambara, Soso and Vai languages.

C. As far as we can see, the Yoruba, Ewe and Tshi have several
features in common with the Mande and Kru languages rather than
with the Southern division and the Sierra Leone branch of the Ba-ntu
languages; e. g. in the verb the monosyllahic form of the stem prevails
(in Yoruba even more than in I'slii), and the conjugation or inflexion

XXIV INTEODUCTORY NOTES.

of the verh does not present the same variety of forms; especially tlie
passive form is wanting (though not altogether in Kru). In Yoruha
and Efik the noun or pronoun in the possessive case stands after the
noun to which it refers, as in the South -African and Sierra Leone ■
languages; in Ewe this is no more the case, except with the possessive j
pronoun of the 1st and 2d pers. sing., whicli may ho used before or
after the noun to which they belong; but in Tshi, Akra, Kru, Mande, \
the genitive word always precedes the noun to which it refers (the
Bambara in this respect making an exception among the Mande lan-
guages). The way in which the prepositions of European languages
are expressed by verhs and nouns, seems to be essentially the same
in the Niger and Volta branches of the Ba-ntu languages and in the
Kru and Mande languages. Such and other particulars of the family
relations of the Tshi with other languages, however, would find their
place in a comparative Grammar on African languages rather than in
this introduction, and cannot, therefore, here be entered into at length.
But it is hoped that the present Grammar will furnish materials and
inducements to the prosecution of the labours of comparative philology,
by which the peculiarities of the single languages will be gradually
cleared up and the mastering of such languages will in consequence
be more and more facilitated to Europeans.

j

!

'' A GRAMMAR

OF TIIK

I ASANTE AND FANTE LANGUAGE

CALLED TSJii [CJiWEK rm\.

PART I.

OF SOUNDS AND LETTERS (PHONOLOGY).

CHAPTER I.
Pronunciation and Division of Sounds.

ALPHABET.

!• In accordance with the ^Standard Alj)liahet for reducing nnwrit-
ten languages do, to a tmiform orthographg iyi Kuropcan letters '*),
which has been widely employed for African lanj^nages, we make use
of the following letters :

a (a) b d e e (e) f g h i k (1) m n n o o (o) p r 8 t u w w y.

Remarks. 1. Those 27 letters represent as many simple sounds.
Additional sounds are : the nasal vowels, § 3, the sound of m before f,
the palatal n, § 8, the sound of hy, § 10, and the compound sounds
of tw, dw, fw, § 12. On 1 and some other foreign letters, see § 8. 14.

2. The letters a e o are only used for exact grammatical distinction ;
in common writing the letters a e o serve for them also.

3. The pronunciation of the vowels see § 2-7, that of the simphi
and compound consonants, § 8-14; the names of the letters, § 15.

VOWELS.

Simple Vowels,

3. There are ten principal vowels:

a a eeei ooon
guttural^ palatal, labial.

*) By Dr. Lepsius, London, Williams and Norgatc, Berlin, W. liertz, 18G3.

PHONOLOGY. § 3. 4J

Each of them retains the same sound, whether it be short or long.

The pronunciation of these vowels is as follows :

a (fvll) sounds as a in far;
a (thin) ^ „ a in fat;

e {hroad)^e in veri^, there; o (broad) =o in not^ nor;

e (full) =e in hed^ a in fate; o (full) ^= o in tobacco, note ;

e (narrow) between e and i; o (narrotv) between o and u;

i (close) = i in fill^ ravine ; u (close) ^= u in full, rule ;

Examples of the short sounds are:

fa, to take yi, to take away

kari, to weigh so, to drop

se, to be like so, to hold

se, to say so, to carry

te, to hear'^ to sit; tu, to pull out.

Bemark, The half or thin 'a' is only a modification of the broad or
full *a', produced by the influence of succeeding sounds, as i, u; bnt
the half or narrow e and o are independent vowels, more frequent than
the middle or full e and o, which occur seldom as independent vowels,
but very often as modifications of the broad e and g. See § 17, 1-3.

3. The vowels are either pure or nasal. The broad e and o are
seldom found nasal; the full e and o are always pure.

Nasal vowels are marked thus: a e i 6 u.

The nasal mark is frequently omitted on vowels adjoining to nasal
consonants (m, n, h, hw, ny) or other nasal vowels.

ka, to bite; to remain nam, to walk

ka, to touch; to speak nim, Ak. ni, F. nyim, to know

pe, to throw, strew kum, Ak. ku, to kill

ti, to pinch, nip tane, to disturb I

so, to be large pene, to consent f

su, to weep, cry tee, to stretch out.

me, mo, ne, no, nom, see § 58. 63.

4. 1. The vowels are commonly short, as in the examples § 2. 3.
2. Long vowels are marked thus: a e e i g o fi a e i O fi. M
In certain cases the vowel is doubled. ■

pa, to strike te, to open widely me, to satiate

ta, to persecute pe, to search n win wi, ^ wwriwttf]

kete, brightly fosg, moist fa', flexible

kete, strictly kiisu, dark koni, silent.

Ofii ne mmofraase yaree, he was sick from his childhood*

I

6. PRONITNCIATION AND DIVISION OF SOUNDS.

Very short vowels are usually marked thus : a 6 i o li.

a (pra), to sweep si am, to strip off korokorg, ^ indtUge

i (trii), to sit 8 u a, to be small b i r e b i r e, talkative

e, to bring hiia, to scrape.^ scratch k li r o k li r o, pra/Z/m//.

Compound Votvels.

t One kiud of diphthongs consists of a principal vowel and an
3sory sound, heard whilst the mouth is closing again. This termi-
)n is palatal («=e, or i), or labial (the semi-vowel w, closer than
d u, or u) :

ae ae ai, ee ei, oe oe 6e ui ui;

aw aw au, ew ew (ew) iw, ow ow (ow) uw;

ao! is an interjection;

eu is only used in foreign names, e. g. Europa,

bese diphthongs sound according to their single constituents,
nly three of them are found in English:

= i, y, in five^ fly. Ex. ahai, beer \ ai! ai! ay! woe!

-ou^ ow, \n sour, now. Ex. asau, a fishing-net
-oi, oy, in oil, boy. Ex. nsge, a thorn.

camples of the rest are the following words:

kae, to remember saw, to dance

asac, a hammer sew, to spread oid

pee, a chisel; to chisel osew, mother-in-latv

fei, to search osew, /ic grinds

asoi, a handle siw, to pound, obstruct

epoe, it withered pow, to polish

gkoe, he fought sow, to cut, hatch

tui, a brush sow, to bear (fruit)

ohui, he saw; huw, to blow.

Disyllabic combinations of two vowels, of which the second re-
s a wider opening of the mouth than the first, are the following:

iaiaieieio
ua ua ue ue uo

tia, to tread
sie, to reposit, bttry
be a, to lie across
h u a, to ansiver

le second vowel may assume palatal or labial termination:

iae iei eae uae uei oae oee eaw eew.

asiei, a burying-place apuei, east

beae, a rafter asoee, a resting-place

m mu a e, an answer p e a w, a spear.

ea

•

ea

ee ee ea;

oa

•

oa

ge oe oq oa.

pue, to appear
soc, to alight
tee, to stretch (oid)
boe, to begin.

PHONOLOGY. § 7-9*

?• Diphthongs (and triphthongs) beginning with a very short vowel
have sprung from such combinations (§ 6), by reducing their first
vowel to extreme shortness and thereby becoming monosyllabic:

ia ia iaw, also ea ea;

lia iia uaw ua u a ilae uae uo.

siam, §4;osiam, flour ^^a, to flay; hua, tough

si aw, to sticTc^ he caught suaw, to lop (trees)

si an, to recoil siian, to bleed

si an, to descend guan, to flee

siane, to side, flank siiane, to slit^ tear

siabaw, to tie, tuck oliu^e, a broom

ok yea me, a linguist miio, to, be bad.

The vowels in the compound prefixes wo a-, yea-, mo a-, wo a- (§ 54)

are likewise pronounced monosyllabic, as diphthongs.

CONSONANTS.

Simple Consonants.

Hm The simple consonants are

labial^

dental,

guttural,

Mutes: hard:

l>

t

k

soft:

b

d

^

Fricatives:

f

s

h

Semi-vowels: nasal:

m

n

n

pure :

w

r (1)

-

palatal :

The sounds of p t k, b d, f s h, m, n, y, are as in English ;'
g sounds always hard, as in go ;
h sounds strong before pure, and soft before nasal, vowels;

it is scarcely heard between n and nasal vowels; hhoma, a hoOk,
m before f is pronounced with the lower lip only;
n before y is palatal;
11 = ng in sing;

V =r in ring, trap, carry, never as in car, card, here;
1 is used in foreign proper names, and in some Fan to dialects for r;
w is pronounced with the lips more contracted and less protruded than

in the Engl, w; it has a very soft sound before o and u.

Lengthened semi-vowels.

d. The nasal semi-vowels m and n, when terminating a syllable, are
in some words drawn out and continued for a short space of time,
which peculiarity we express by doubling the letter.

i

§10. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF SOUNDS.

! fahn, fought flexible dcmm, dinn, \ silent^

hahn, bright, light komm, ] quiet

^Y^iiiii, plainly komm, entire^ intact

genii, gyehn, pretty much so hh, sa/'c, alone.

The pure semi-voivels w and r arc tlius drawn out and lengthened in

bereww (also written bereo), gently; goroww (gorgw), weal-;
woboo kirrr (kirididi) kgo kurow no mu, they rvshed into the town.

Compound Consonants,
Palatalized consonants: ky, gy, hy, ny; w.

10« 1. The guttural consonants k g h, when followed by palatal
vowels, become palatal (shifting the place of contact from the soft to
the hard palate) and assume the accessory sound of y, whilst the tongue
is passing over into its position for e, e, i ;

g assumes y also before *a\* and likewise we have

ny as a palatal combination before a, e, i.

ky ^j ny are pronounced as two compound sounds (before i, i, e

the y is less distinct); but the combination
hy passes over into a simple sound, ^' of the Stand. Alph., equal to the

palatal ch in German ^MUnchen\ similar to ch in Scotch loch.

kye, to last hye, to put (on, in)

kyen, to grotv hard, dry hyew, to burn

kyi, to shun hyeren, to shinCt glitter

kyi, to squeeze out hyira, to bless

^JQ^ to accept, resale nya, to get, obtain

gy in a, to stand (still) nyinam, to glimpse.

k is not palatalized

a. before e which is shortened from *a' in reduplication (§ 10. 20, 4);

b. before e, e, i, when the next syllable of the same word begins
with t or 8, in the Asante dialect also when it begins with r.

a. keka, red. fr. ka, to bite, kenkan, red. fr. kan, to read.

ft. kete, a mat kit a, to lay hold of

kese, great \ kisit, to turn, wither, roast
kesiw, to belch kere, As. = kyere, ^o 67^o^(;,•
kente, a cloth of native kurukere, kurukyerew, to
manufacture; scribble.

2. The labial semi-voivel w also assumes y before e, e, i;
but instead of wy we write w (since 1860).

wen, to watch we, to gnaw, eat wia, to steal

were, to scrape we a, to crawl wie, to finish.

PHONOLOGY. §llli

On kw gw hw 11 w: kii gu hfi nu; tw dw fw nw.

11 • The guttural consonants k g li u are frequently found join©
with the semi-votvel w or a very short li, before 'a\ in Fante dialect

#

also before e e i. See § 12, 2.

okwa, merely^ in vain^ for nothing hkwa, life

kwaw, kokwaw, to mh^ wear off ekwae, wood, forest

kwae, kwati, to leave aside ok wan, a tvay.

Akwam, pr. n. of a country

Okwamni (Okwamuni), a man of Akivam

Akuapem, pr, n. of a country

Okuapenni, an Akuapem-man

gua, guan, hiia, hua, ohuae, see §4. 7.

hwanyan, to stir, scatter hwam, to roam

nhwea, F. ah we a, sand nwane, to tveed

hhwi, F. ehwi, hmr nwene, to iveave.

12. 1. When the giitturo-lahial combinations (§11) are followt
^y ^? c, i, then both of the consonants undergo a change equal t
and exceeding, that mentioned in § 10, and we obtain the

2)alato-lahial combinations tw dw fw nw, with w.

t w sounds as a mixture of ts (=67^ in church) and w ;

d w is mixed up of d (formed at the palate), w and y ;

f w : the f is formed by both lips, which are contracted nearly as mm
as for whistling. By this contraction of the lips and the simult
neous raising of the tongue for w, the original sound of h becao
a sort of f.

nw is equal to nwy, as w^wy.

2. In Fante dialects the gutturo-labials have not yet undergone tl
palatal transformation.

twa, F. kwia, to cut fwe F. hwe, to look

tvve, F. kwe, to pull, draw fwe F. hwe, to fall, flog

twen F. kwcn, to wait fwie F. hwie, to pour

dweh F. gwen, to think efwene F. ehwen, nose

ad w e F. a g w e, palm-mU-kernel n w i n i, to leak ; cool.
odwennini (fr. oguah, nini), ram

3. In the Akem and Asante dialects the palatal transformation lu
been carried farther than in the Akuapem dialect.

egua Ak. edwa, market hua Ak. fwa, to scrape

agua „ adwa, seat huam „ fwam, to smell

guan „ dwane, to flee huan „ fwane, to sprah

oguan „ o([\v ane, sheep huah' „ ii\\H.ne, to peel

iinuah „ nnwane, „ pi. huane „ „ to scratc

§ 13. 14. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF SOUNDS.

Bern, 1. The combination jj^ua, always monosyllabic, is so frequent,
that we usually omit the sign of shortness.

Rem, 2, We write okwa.., okwan, Akwam, Okwamni, with w,
but egua. ., oguan, Akuapem, Okuapenni, with u(§ 11), — be-
cause the former words have open prefixes^ which demand the writing
kwa (=koa?), and the latter have half-open prefixes^ which change
can only be attributed to the influence of a succeeding u. See § 17.

To prove the necessity of the different writing , we give the follo-
wing affirmative and negative forms of some verbs:

owae, he falls off, neg. oii-wae, he does not fall off,

oguae, he parts-, „ oh-nuae; Ak. odwae-ounwae;

oware, he marries^ „ oh -ware;

oguare, he bathes^ „ oh-iiuare; Ak. odware - ohn ware;

g-h wane, he weeds, „ oh -ii wane;

oguah, he flees, „ oh-huah; Ak. od wane -oh h wane.

We must also retain the u in analogy with the forms sfia, siiaw,
fiiaw, suane, si aw, siane (redupl. susiia, susuaw, sunsuane,
sis law &c.) in which tiie u and i have likewise become extremely
short, so as to have lost the vocalic sound and the power of forming
an own syllable. — On the other hand we must put the combina-
tions gua (hh ua), hua, by the side of gwa, hwa, hwa, because
they are entirely consonantal in Ak. dvva (hhwa), fwa.

System of Comonants.

13« The simple and compound consonants (§ 8-12) together with
some foreign letters may be arranged thus:

Families: Mutes Fricatives Semi-vowels

hard soft sharp flat nasal pure.

I. Labials P ^ f [v] m w

II. Dentals t [ts] d [dz] s [,1^] fz] n • r [I]

III. Gridturals kg ^ [/] — ^ —

IV, Palatals ky gy hy[/] — ny y

y. Gutturo- (a)kw gw hw — hw —

labials (6) kit gu hii

nu

VI. Palato-labials tw dw fw — hw

V

W.

FANTE AND FOREIGN LETTERS.

14. 1. In some Fante dialects the t and d are changed into ts
and dz before e, e, i. (Whether there occurs a change of ky and gy
into t§ and dz, as it takes place in the Akra language, remains to
be ascertained.) — The 'Mfantsi Grammar by D. L. Carr and I. P,
Brown^ Cape Coast, ISOS,"* ascribes to t, before a, o, u, the sound of
the Engl, sharp th in thin (i? of the Stand Alph.), and to the palatal
fricative hy (^' of the Stand. Alph.) the sound of 8=^sh in ship.

8 PHONOLOGY. § 15-17.|

2. The foreign letters v z sound as in English, z^;s^ in azure.

3. In books on Geography and General History we admit some^i*
more foreign letters, o. g. the letter ^ (= ch in Scotch and German), I tj
which is frequent in the neigbouring Daliome Language, called Ewe L
or E</?o (cp=^ with both lips), and the German letters a 6 u; or we
give English, French, Italian &c. names in their European orthogra-
phy, adding the pronunciation in parenthesis.

•1

NAMES OF THE LETTERS IN THE ALPHABET.

15. In reciting the alphabet, or when spoken of in grammatical ||
discussion, the single letters are not named by their English names, !
but the vowels are named by their own sound, and the consonants
are sounded with the addition of a short e, or, where e does not agree
with the consonant, with a short a or o:

be de fe go ha ka em en en pe re se te wa we ye;
likewise the 6 foreign letters: ^e le se ve ze ze.

But in teaching to read, only one sound must be given to a letter; i
thus p is only a mute sound from the lips, b likewise, but softer,
f only a mute blowing between the lower lip and the upper teeth,
w, w, y are gentle vocalic breathings (w between the nearly closed lips,
y between the tongue and the palate, w from both of these passages) &c.

CHAPTER II.
Euphony. ^

IG. When different sounds, of those which we have hitherto con-
sidered separately, are united into syllables, words and sentences ; we
observe that certain laws of euphony, together with a decided ten-
dency of the language to quickness and fluency of speech, and dia-
lectical variation, occasion different changes of single sounds, viz.
assimilation and other permutation of sounds, elision, contraction and
apocope of sounds; but we have also to note insertion and addition
of sounds. I

Assimilation of Voivcls, j

IT. 1. The vowels are distinguished, concerning the degree of
width of the opening of the mouth required for them, as j

1. open: a e g 3. half -close: e o |

2. half-open: fi e o 4. close: i u. 1

The 1st and 3d groups form the class of the odd numbers in § 2.
The 2d and 4th groups form the class of the even mmibers (in do.).

i

§ 17. EUPUONY. 9

2. In different vowels following each other the step from the 1st
to the 4th degree of width is too great, the steps 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 are
too small ; the previous vowel is , therefore, brought into agreement
with the succeeding vowel by assimilation, being made either of equal
degree^ or at least of equal class.

3. The open vowels a e o remain as they are before their class-
mates a e g, e o, and also before the thin a; but they are changed
into the half-open vowels a e o before i, u, the full e, o, and the com-
binations gya, nya, twa, and dwa Ak. = gua.

This we see, e.g. in the prefixes of the following nouns:

aba, fruit ^go, velvet ^SY^i father

en a, mother opete, vulture ogya.^ fire

ope, harmattan obonto, boat onya, slave

ade, thing ayi, funeral custom etwa, scar

epo, sea eti, otiri, head 3,gua (adwa), seat

obayifo, sorcerer osu, rain; eh Uj fear egua (edwa), marA:c<.

The same changes of a e o occur in those prefixes of the verb which
contain these vowels (see § 89, 7.), and in compositions,

4. The narrow e and o, in three pronominal prefixes of the verb
(m e, w o, m o), either remain, or are changed into i, u, in the same
cases, as mentioned above.

me nam, I walk migye, I accept midi, I eat

wote, thou hearcst wuse, thou sayest wuhu, thou seest

moko, you go munytl, you get mutwam', you pass.

In compounds the change of narrow e, o, into i, u, though existing
in pronunciation, is seldom followed in writing;

e.g. abufuw, anger, from bo and fuw;
but: abotu, despondency, from bo and tu;

ahohuru, heat] ahenni, kingdom (not: ahuhuru, ahinni).

5. A narrow vowel is seldom changed into a broad vowel (still of
tAe same class) ; e. g.

; Qj ere, wife; ayeforo, hride\ ay e ware {sLyew are), matrimony,

• 6. Vowels of the even number are seldom changed into vowels of
I the odd number, at least the change is not followed in writing, except
in the syllables b 6 r o from b u r o (a b u r o w ?) § 39, 3 a. The words
fgyefo, iikiirofo (from gyc, kiirow), sound, in quick speaking,
ijr the influence of the syllable fo, almost as ogycfo, fikrgfo.

7. In words that are written separately, the euphonic change of pro-
mnciation is not followed in writing; e. g.

mafwe bi, I have beheld some (not: mafwe bi);

me ti, wo ti, ne ti, my, thy, his head (not: mi ti, wu ti, ni ti).
Dbfar yen, our, won, their, are written yen and won, before words
Hii close sounds.'

I

10 PHONOLOGY. § 18. 19.

8. Whilst of two vowels usually the preceding is influenced by the
succeeding vowel, we find the palatal suffix (§ 29, 3) governed by the
preceding \owe\^ as in the diplithongs ae ce ei(§5); sumi, sgnc (§36).

The vowel of pronouns that are put as objects behind verbs, is
also changed in pronunciation by preceding close vowels; still we
write: ohume, osiwo, otu no, oyi mo (not: mi, wu, nu, mu).

Assimilation of Consonants.

18. 1. Nasal consonants, placed, as prefixes or In composition, be-
fore another consonant, are tlius adapted to it:

m is put before lahialSy except w, which prefers h;
m before f wants only the lower lip for its formation;
n dental, is put before denials ;
n palatal, before the palatals y ny gy and tw;
h before all the rest.

2, Nasal consonants before soft mutes make the latter assimilate to
the former.

3. So we get the following junctions of nasal consonants:
m with p, f, m ; mb change into mm;
n „ t, 8, n; nd „ „ nn;

n „ tw, ny, y; "gy « r, nny;

n „ k, kw, ky, h, hw, hy, nw; ng „ „ nn;

n „ w, tw, nw, w; ndw „ „ nnw.
Examples see § 42, 2. 95. 96. 12. Bern. 2.

Permutations of Sounds.

lO. Other interchanges of letters are to be observed, besides the
cases mentioned in § 17. 18.

A. Vowels.

In certain formations of stems, in reduplications and in compound
words, we find shortened vowels corresponding to, and replacing, broad
and full vowels', and in the way of dialectical variation, or by the
influence of neigbouring sounds, vowels of different degree (§ 17) Or
family (i, e. place of formation, § 2) may interchange.

Vowels thus interchanging are :

a with a e, before an inserted r or n: bara, bera, mana, t^na;
with e o i, in reduplications: keka, popa, twitwa, nyinyft;
with e e o, in compound words: dwetiri, from gua, Ak. dwa;

odwennini, fr. oguan, Ak. odwane; kokuma = (a)ka-kiima;

in dialects: gkyena, ok a. n a., to-morrow] nwoh wa. As. nwan wa,

wonderous; awowa, Ak. yaw a, brass.

a with e or o, in dialects: sare, grass', ad a re, a billhook, Ak. scr§,
adere; cf. 'nera or *nara, 'nora, yesterday,

§19. EUPHONY. 11

e, g, with e, 6, before an inserted r: b6re, p5rgw;

with e, o, in reduplications: sese, sosg, kyekye, tontgn;
with e, o, in dialects: ye, to he good, Ak. ye;
e, o, with i, ii, before an inserted r: birebire, abtirow;

with i, u, in reduplications: sise, ^J'^^y^y suso, dwudwo;
with e, o, in dialects: se, to say, gye, to receive, Ak. se, gy^.
e, e, with g, o, in dialects: d wehku, dwohku; d wentofo, dwontofo ;
in the pBefix of nouns, see § 35 Bern. 2.

in the 3d pers. sing, of the pronominal prefixes of verbs, § 58 Hem, L
also within the same dialect, e. g. in Akuapem and Akyem :

ahocdeh, ahogden, strength; anieden, anugdeii, audacity \
anuenyam, anuonyam, (animenyam, animonyam), glory;
aboeduru, abooduru, yaZoMr; nsuehyew, nsughyew, hot water,
e, e, 1 with g, o, u, by the influence of labial letters ;

cf. ben, wen, yen, wgn, they (§58 Item. 2) \ wesaw, wo saw,
to chew ; t w e m, t w o m, altogether ; a d w i n i, skilftd work, o d w u m f o,
a workman ; o h w i n i, cool, ahwummere, evening; owira, owura,
master ; o w i si e Ak., o w u si w Akp., smoke,

ew, ew, i \v pass over into gw, ow, uw; but we usually retain the
palatal vowels, when the Akem dialect has them without the final w.

Ak. ekye, a hat, Akp. ekyew, not: ekygw;

„ a f w e r e e, suga r-cane, r> afwerew, „ af wero w ;
„ twi, to nib, „ twiw, „ twuw;

„ edwie, alouse, r edwiw, „ dwuw;

„ dwiri, to xmll down, „ dvviriw, „ dwuru.

o with i, in a s it i w = asot i w, deafness,

B. Consonants.

Besides tlie dialectical interchanges of consonants mentioned in § 13.
15., we notice the folh)wing consonants as interchanging within the
same dialect or in different dialects :

p, w: posow, wosow, to shake, patiriw, watiriw, to slide, slip;
b, w: awowa = awoba, a pawn ; Ahawante=Ahabante;
b, m: muka=bukyia, a hearth \ mogya=bogya, blood]
m, n: gsram, Ak. gsrane, the moon; koma, Ak. konona, the heart;
a, d, dz: so, F. do, upon; asase, F. d adc, dadze, the land, earth;
d, n: anad wo, adadwo, night; nne=da yi, to-day; ne, de, to be;
d, r: 'nera=:'ne da, yesterday; horo, Aky. hodog, varioiis;
, r, n: tra, ten a, to sit; mra, man a, to send, transmit;
n, n: abieh'::^abienu, mmiQun, two; nen = neno, §53 Hem.

n at the end of words is in F. n, in Aky. often palatal u.
ny, n: nim, F. nyim, to know; ninsen, nyinsen, to conceive;

gpanyih, gpanin, an elder ^ a person superior in years or rank,
ny, y: yem, F. nyem, to conceive.
k, h: akekantwcre, ah ah ant we re, a scorpion.
h, s, fw: hintiw, Aky. sunti. As. fwinta, to stumble.
li, w : a h o b a, F. = a w o b a, a w o w a, a pawn.
h, y : hara Ak., yera Akp., yew F., to be lost.

1 2 PHONOLOGY^ § 20. 21,

Elision of Sounds^ and Contraction,

20. 1. Very short vowels before an inserted r are frequently elided,
especially after the strong consonants p, t, k, f, s, and when the vowel
after the r is open (a, e or g), or long^ or when the syllable terminates
in m or n. Two syllables are thereby contracted into one (§ 23, 3); e. g.

pra, tra, kra, sra, fra, fre; bebre, fremfrem, mpren.

2. The vowel 'a' after very short i and ii is elided in the redupli'
cation syllable*^ e. g.

siaw, sisiaw; sua, susiia; siane, sinsiane; gukn, gunnuau.

3. Two vowels coming together are either contracted into one long
vowel, e. g. gy a a sefo, domestics^ or the preceding vowel is elided
and the second remains short; so the vowels e and o are frequently
elided in the pronouns me, ne, also wo, no (§ 55. 56. 58.).

4. Some combinations of three sounds are reduced to one or two:
k w a, shortened into k o, in composition and reduplication :

akwatia, akotia, a 5^or^ w«an; akwakwara, akwakora, an old

man; Kwasi, Kofi (§41, 4); kwaw, kokwaw; kwan, konkwan.
-aba, aw a, a: tawa, ta, tobacco*^ toawa, toa, a small calabash.
-e b a, e w a, a: a d w e, a palm-nut-kernel, pi. (h li w e w a) n h w e a ;

hkyerekyerewa, hkyerekyera, a dry wilderness.
-iba, iwa, ua: aduan, Ak. adibane, /boc?; Akosua = Akwasiba.
-oba, owa, a: abgra = ab6rgwa, a European lady.
-oba, owa, a: akura = akuro wa, a village.
-ana, ona, 6a: amoa, Ak. amanii, a hole, pit] afoa, Ak, afana, a

sword (of state)] asonomfoa, asomfana, a swallow.
-ina, a: onyl, Ak. onyina, a silk-cotton-tree.

5. The semi-vowel y, which is very slightly articulated before i,
may occasionally be cast out:

fwg n' 'iye = fwe no yiye! look for him (or: at it) well!
eb^ye 'ye = ebeye yiye, it will be well]
gb aifo = gb ay if o, sorcerer. Cf. ni=ne y i, § 200, 1 Bern.
The semi-vowel w may likewise be cast out before u:

awurade, (in poetry) a'urade, lord. Cf. asawu, asau, a nei'^
O k w a w u, Kwau, pr. n. of a country ; K w a k u = Kwawuku (§ 4l , 4).

Apocope.

31* 1. Terminating vowels are sometimes cut off, though there be
no vowels or words closely following after them. So the postposition
mu is most frequently reduced to m', especially in compounds:

nsam', yam', mfem\ tirim, anim, anom', asom';

twam', to pass by; paem', teem', bgm' or bom', to cry out.
On the objective pronouns see § 56.

MenyamM I shall get you! neh =ne no, § 53 Bern.

2. Final m is cast off in Ak. ku, ni = kum, to kill] nim, to know.

[This might be expressed, in § 22 : The final consonant m is added
to ku, ni (Ak.) in the Akp. dialect. But the written language is based
on the latter dialect, and in Fante those words are: kum, nyim.]

§ 22. 23. EUPHONY. 13

Insertion and Addition of Sounds,

t. 1 . By the insertion of r between the consonant and the vowel
of a syllable (or of n, when the vowel is nasal), new stents (»r dia-
lectical variations of stems are formed.

Cf. p a, to take off superficially ; p r a, para, to sweep.

ma, to givc'^ man a (mra), to send, remits forward to.
h o r o, h o h o, h o h o r o , to wash ;
kyere, kyekye, kyekyere, to hind.

One dialect may have a form without r (or n), another the form
strengthened by r (or n).

fi, Ak. firi, to proceed from'^ hu, Ak. hunu, to see\
du, Ak. duru, to arrive; dnru, Ak. du, heavy.

Insertion of r also takes plac^ in a few inflexional forms :
ba, to come/im^* bera; ko, to gOj pret. koe, Ak. kore; inf. k ore e.
§95, 1,9. 10. 2, 3. § 104, 4."

The insertion in most of tliese cases creates a new syllable. The vowel after the r is
often to be considered as the ori^nal, and that before r only as an auxiliary vowel, when
the latter is very short.

2. New stems, or dialectical variations of stems, or derivatives are
sometimes formed by the addition of a new syllable, consisting of r
(or n) with a secondary vowel:

ware, Ak. wa, to he long\ ago, agoru, Ak. agoro, play\
ahumobo, Ak. ahumobore, commiseration*

3. Insertion or addition of sounds is frequently met with in words
taken from foreign languages:

girase, ^to^; mfensere, a tvindow] b^ns^re, ahason\
kobere, copper\ sirikyi, silk\ buku F., brdku Akp., a hook;
twaku, chalk', kesu, cheese, topo', a tuh; suku', school.

CHAPTER III.
Syllables.

STRUCTURE OF SYLLABLES.

^3* 1. A principal syllahle consists of a consonant, simple or com-
pound, and a vowel or diphthong (or triphthong § 7), which may be
followed by one or two nasal consonants; e. g.

ko, ^yoi^ da, pee, sew, be-ra, ma-na, siaw, guae;
som, dwell, komm, pa em, kwaem.

Rem. Mute and fricative consonants never end a syllable, except
ill foreign names.

14 PHONOLOGY.

2. A secondary syllable consists

a, of one vowel or diphthong, standing by itself :

wo a! ko e! Kwasi e, gyina ho o! ai! ao! ei!

&. of one, two or three vowels and nasal semi-vowels, prefixed o
affixed to principal syllables:

g-kg, gh-kg, gn-kg, gnn-kg, e-se, a-fuw, m-pa, ah-kii;
ti-a, ti-a, pe-aw; o-tu-o, g-fwe-am, a-du-ah.

3. A contracted syllable is made from two or three syllables by tb<
elision of sounds in quick speaking:

pr a = pa-ra-, fre ^fe-re; krom' = kii-r om\ kii-rowmu;
o-gu4-^em' = o-guaee mii; mmo-fraa- se =m-mo-fa-ra-a-se.
tar=ta-wa; a-ku-ra = a-ku-ro-wa; § 20, 1. 3-5. 21,1.

24. Division of syllables is generally easy ; only nasal consonant
may occasionally present difficulties.

1. Mute and fricative consonants belong to the following syllable

wa-twam' a-kye; g-tra a-ban -ke-sem\

2. Of two nasal consonants between vowels the one belongs to th
preceding, and the other to the succeeding syllable:

a-hem-man, a-hen-nan, a-hen-nua, n-kgm-mg.

3. A single (or double) m, n or h , when prefixed to a principi
syllable beginning with the same consonant, may be considered a
belonging to it :

mma-gum\ nna-da, hriu-so, ahe-ne-mma (or: 'ma-gum' &c
mmo-fra no mm ma ha! the children shall not come here I

4. A single h between two consonants in compound words belong
to the preceding syllable:

a-ban-a-se-a-bAh-a-se; amdh-amaii.

In formations like gbeiie, he approached, eh one, it swelled^ sgn«
a strainer, a division of the two last syllables is better avoided.

5. The combinations ny, nw, nw require often particular attention
whether the n or n belongs to the preceding or the succeeding syllable

g-pa-nyih; g-pan-yi-fo (from pam and yi); bg-nwoma;
n-wa-ii we-ne; hwo-nwa, a-dgn-wo-wa (fr. dgm, a-wo-wa);
on -ye, he is not good\ on-nye (fr. ^yQ)^ he does not accept^
on -yaw, he does not scold; gnn-yaw, he shall not scold \ but fr. gy aw
o n - n y a w n o, he does not leave him ; o n n - n y a w no, he shall not I. him
gnn-wae, he shall not fall off\ gnn-nwane, he shall not weed,
Cf. § 12 Hem, 2, and § 95.

§ 25. EUPHONY. 15

OF TONE AND ACCENT.

Tone of Vowels and Semi-vowels.
5. Every syllable has, in comparison with neighbouring syllables,

either lotv or high or middle tone. Syllables with long vowels or diph-
thongs or final m, n, n may even have two tones.

Rem. The tone must be distinguished from the accent or stress, § 2G.
In common writing and in books for tlie people we mark the tone
only in cases of ambiguity; but in grammar and dictionary, and for
the study of the language by foreigners , an accurate designation of
the tones and the stress is necessary. Dialectical variations, however,
exist in tone as well as in sounds.

These tones may be denoted by accentual marks, or by figures in-
dicating the degree of elevation of voice, as: /id^kji (132), a box.

We give the following rules for marking the tones:

1. Lotv-toned syllables, preceding the first high tone of a word or
sentence, are left unmarked; e. g. aberewA (11 13), an old woman.

2. The first high tone in a word or sentence is marked with the
acute accent; e.g. oba, child'^ wanyjih, he is awaked; mawie, I
have finished; ade no, that thing; oye, doing (inf.).

3. Subsequent jniddle tones, i. e. high tones abating by one step
or successive steps, are likewise marked with the acute accent; e. g.
ob6nt6 (132), a boat; ne bd any it 11 (1,3,32), his child i^ awaked [the a
of any an (13) has been attracted by the preceding d and thereby
made equally high, whereas the a has become middle (32)]; mawie
ade no y^ (144,43,3,2), / have finished doing that thing,

4. Low tone after or between high tones is marked with the grave
accent; e. g. gbd, he comes; dny^h, it has become sour.

5. As many syllables, as follow in equal tone after a syllable mar-
ked according to the rules under 2-4, are left unmarked, so that each
mark avails for all the following syllables of the same word or suc-
ceeding words, until another mark of tone or a mark of punctuation
follows; e. g. Abo k obi (1333); akoko ani sk bur6fua (133,33,1,1322).

6. Long vowels and diphthongs have either one or two tones:
a. high, marked ii, a, de; as; f6, plainly; ba, branch; apde, it is split,
h. low, i, a, ke, as: fe, deeply, te, straightway/; ApA^ke, it is split.

c. low^highfa, a, ae: ka, ring; epap^e, it splits; hka^, remnant.

d. high, middle , a, a , d 6 : n n a d ^, deceit ; m p a p d 6, crack ; h k d e,
remembrance; tet^, asthma.

e. high, low, si, a\ kh: girase, glass; kesfi, cheese; osti\, he wept.

7. Very short vowels may have their own tones; in printing either
the accent is put after the letter, or the sign of shortness given up:
6ka'rd, soul; k6rgw, core. In other cases the very short vowel has
the tone of the succeeding vowel ; e. g. g 6 r o w w, weak.

16 PHONOLOGY. § -

8. The nasal consonants m, n, n, may hmc their own tones:

a. as prefixes (§ 29, 2. 40. 91, 10. 92.);

mpd (is), hed\ ne mpd (3,32), his bed]

nsii (13), water; ehd nsii (13,32), the water of this place.

oyi nko (13,33)! this one shall go!

oyi n'ko (13,13), this one does not go.

n6 n^ nkg (3,1,33)! hi^ mother shall go!

ne n^ hkg (3,1,13), his mother does not go.

won te (313)? do gou not hear:' wiin tie (3113) 'j^ do gon not listen:

koseno se; ghnko (313)! go tell him that he shall not go!

b. as remnants of full syllables :

osram' Ak. osrane, moon, month;

abien' = abienu, Ak. mmienii, two.

a n i m' = a n i m u, (in the) face ; n s d m' = n s A m u, in the hand

y d m' = y a m u, (in the) bellg ; e p m' — tj p o m u, in the sea.

c. as final letters of verbs in some inflexional forms:

gpam' 116(113,1), he expells him; opam' no (131,1), Jie expelled him.

9. Final w may likewise have its own tone:

a. merely as termination of a diphthong: aferaw', the clock-bird;

b. in some inflexional forms of verbs (§ 95, 5): osew' ne ketg, I
spread his mat] the sinking of the high tone might also be marke
thus : o s e w ; in g s e w, he spreads^ the w partakes of the same lo'
tone with the e.

Word-accent or Stress on Sgllables.

30« The accent or stress of a word is the emphatic prouunciatio
of a syllable, which distinguishes it from other syllables of the sani
word.

In verbst the stress depends much on the changes of tone; it is eithc
on prefixes, or on the stem, as we shall see in its place. § 91 lien

In nouns, the stress lies either on the first high-toned syllable,
on the low-toned next before it. See § 40. In the former case tb
stress does not want an own mark; in the latter, we may put a sma
perpendicular line or the grave accent after the syllable that has th
stress, e.g. Onya'me, Onyank6pgii, God. But we may as we
put the grave accent on the vowel of the syllable: Onyam^, Onyai
k6pgn (113, 1132); for, as it would not be required to indicate th
low tone (according to § 25, 1), its presence indicates that the syllabi
marked with it has low tone with a stress*

Of. gbea, ah6sah, adwinni, gdab6, ah6huru, ghahini, potrobodwo,
dboa, dyisa, ddwiima, gpdpo, dnibere, gydfunu, df6fantg.

In nouns with low tones throughout, the first syllable of the stei
usually has the stress; e. g. wgfa, asdfo, and use, kontromfO.

§ 27-29. FOHliATION OF WORDS IK GEKKBAL. 17

_

PART II.

OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY).

CHAPTER I.
Formation of Words in greneral.

/

u..,

'^•■•...

ST. All words, coucerning their form and origin, are either pri-
^ tniiive, or derivative^ or com pound.

Primitives. Primary and Secondary Stems.

2^« 1. The real primitives of the language are what we call sim-
ple sterns^ all of them beginning with a single or compound consonant.

' 2. Primary stems have, beside the initial consonant, one short vowel ;
secondary stems have their vowel enlarged into a long vowel or diph-

[ thong, or are augmented by a final m or n (F. n), or increased by an

f accessory syllable which begins with r, n, or m, or seem to be com-

[ pounded of two of such simple stems.

3. We distinguish ten forms or variations of simple stems, repre-
sented by the following verbs of 1,2 and 3 syllables:

1. pa, 2. paw, 3. pa, 4. pae, 5. pam and pah; '' f^

[ 6. pi a, 7. pare, pe re, 8. para (pra), pira; 9. pata, 10. patir iw.

The last vowel of the forms under 6-8 may be enlarged or augmen-
ted as the vowel of the form un ler 1 is in the forms under 2-5 :
6. peaw, tia, f wcam; 7. fanim, screw; 8. trah, tana, yeraw, horah.

The forms under 9. 10. seem to be compounded of two of the forms
t under 1-8, but are in meaning like other simple stems, i. e. the two
\ parts do not exist by themselves with separate meanings, the uniting

of which would give the meaning of the compound.

4. Such stems are used as verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
But simple pronouns also (though they partly assume prefixes), that
cannot be traced back to existing simple stems, and simple numerals
(usually with prefixes) are considered as primitives.

5. Exotics, i. e. words borrowed from foreign languages, are also
reckoned among the primitives; e. g. bru, blue; girase, glass.
(These have frequently characteristical tones; sec § 22, 3).

Derivatives. Prefixes, Suffixes and Beduplication.

29* 1. Derivatives are formed from primitives by the accrument
of prefixes or suffixes (besides changes in tone) and by reduplication.

2

' e

18 ETYMOLOGY. § 29hlj

2. I'lie nominol prefixes^ i. o. prefixes found in nouns, adjectives and
numerals, are a, e, o, (or a, e, o, § 17), m (n, h, § 18), am (an, an).
See § 35. j,

(The prefixes of the verb, by which not new words, but new forms of
the same word are obtained in the process of inflexion, see § 89. 91. 96.)

3. The nominal suffixes are:
the palatal suffix e. e or i, i, Ak. e e, i e ; see § 36 ; (the suffix e or i

occurs also in the inflexion of the verb, § 91, 2. 3, 103. 104, 4. 5.);
the diminutive suffix wa, sometimes ma, often contained in a; see §37;
the personal suffix ni, fo; see § 38.
the plural-suffix nom; see § 42, 5.

4. llediiplicaUon is the doubling of a stem by a repetition of the whole
stem, or a prefixing of a shortened form of it. On the change of vo-
wels in the latter case see § 19, a, e, o, e, o ; § 20, 2. I

popo, dada, tiatia, pirapira, patir ipatiriw ; J

keka, pop a, bobo, sesew, papae, pompan, guhnuan.

'J'he reduplicated form itself is also called a reduplication.

Almost all verbs may be reduplicated, some of them even twice;
e.g. fefafefa, bebabebare, from fa, bare. Some verbs are used
only in the reduplicated form, e. g. nwiiiw!, 1o murmur. Cf. § 99.

Of many adjectives once or twice reduplicated forms are used besides
the simple forms, and some adjectives are only found as reduplications.
See § 69, 2 a. 70.

5. From reduplication we may distinguish :

a. reiierationj by which only one syllable (of two or more) is repeated:

koktiro, kokiiroko, large '^ kritna, krtlnanana, silent]

b, repetition, by which the whole word (stem and prefix) is repeated:

nkakra-iikakr a, little by little', aboabo, stony '^ §69, 2 c.
akoko-akoko, qiiartllings (from ko, to fight, gko, ako, a fight,
fighting] this is a repetition of a reduplication).

6. Derivatives may also be formed from primitives in two ways
(e. g. by a prefix and a suffix) at the same time ; e. g. i

anome, fr. nom; ad 6 m ma, fr. don; gsomf6, fr. som;

and from derivatives (e. g. reduplications) in one way, or in two ways
at the same time; these are called: secondary derivatives] e. g.
gunnuane, ntwintwame, osisifo, osafoni, nnonnomma.

Jlem. Derivatives in form (nouns or other words consisting of a pre-
fix and a simple or reduplicated stem) may be considered as primi'
tives in meaning, when no simpler word still existing in the language
can be shown, from which they are evidently derived.

1

I

§30. 31. FORliATION OF WORDS IN GENERAL. 19

Compounds,

SO. A compound word is formed of two or more words, each of
which may be either primitive or derivative or even compound.

1. Pdfcct compotnids are consolidated, frequently by assuming new
or changed prefixes, by elision or assimilation of sounds and changos
of tone; i. e. the two simple words have become completely incorpo-
rated and appear as one new word (§ 39. 59. G9, 2d. 3. 78. 80. 81, 1 .); <*.g-

a y e f o r o (rr^ g y c r e f o f o r o, a n etc tvife% hride ;

ahemfi ( = ghene fi. the kings home or ducUing), court \

a k y e r e k y e r e k w a n (fr. k y e r e, to shoiv, g k w a n, wof/)^ forrfhtgcr.

2. Imperfect compounds or loose combinations, especially of new
formation, and some repetitions, are connected by a liyphen :

Owu-fida, (lit. dcath-friday) Good Fridatj]

wo tumi-nsa, thg {hand of might, or) might i/ hand'^

wo agya-ayamye, thy (goodness of a father) fatherly goodness-^

mmiako-mmiako, one hg one. § 79.

3. Obscure compounds are apparent compounds, the single consti-
tuents of which have, not yet been clearly shown; e. g.

nsatea, finger (n8{i=^ha7id\ but tea = ?);
nkontompo, ^cr/?c?^ (kontoh = /r> bend? po = ?).

Bern. 1. In some cases different ways of tvriting have been used in
our books, when, without impairing the sense, two words are written
either separately or as imperfect or full compounds ; e. g.

agya nom, agya-nom, agyanom, § 42, 5;

wo ara, woahkasa or woara, woankasa, §59.

^. The term ''compound stenC may be used in a twofold way :
a. for verbs, adjectives, adverbs or nominal stems of the forms under

9. 10 (§ 28, 3), which we might call: twin stems;
6. for any word evidently compounded of two or more words, with

the exclusion of, and in contradistinction from, its ])refix :

a - h o g d e n , strength ; a - p o h k g k w a n , a (ho rses^ w'^//) /' igh way .

CHAPTER ii.
The Parts of Speech.

31. We distinguish eight parts of speech, viz. :

1. Nouns 5. Verbs

2. Pronouns 6. Adverbs

3. Adjectives 7. Conjunctions

4. Numerals 8. Interjectioiis.

The Prepositions are spoken of as Auxiliary Verbs, and under the
-head of Adverbs as Postpositions. § 108. 109. 115 — 131.

20 ETYMOLOGY- § 32. 33,

1. NOUNS.

S*Z. Nouns (also called substantive nounSy substantives) are names
of different things^ which may be : i

1. animate things, or persons and animals \

2. inanimate things^ existing a. as single individuals, h. as materials
(substances which are not made up of individual parts) ;

3. places^ defined parts of space in general or of certain things ;

4. times, either time in general, or divisions of it;

5. quaniitieSj also numbers, measures, weights; (nouns denoting a
definite number, see Numerals^ § 76-80) ; ^

6. (pialities^ whether relating to material objects, or to the mind,
or to both, or also to actions;

7. states and conditions of mind or body, or of things in general;

8. actions. •

1. onipa, a man\ ghene, a king:, aboa, a beast \ okor^,^ an eagle. \

2. odan, a house; dud, a tree '^ a so, an ear \ nsii, tvater-^ sikk^ gold.

3. OS or 6, the upper part or parts, heaoen'^ w i a. a e, ivorld ] ofie, Jiome.

4. ebere, a time; edd, (c dag; afe, afrihyia, a gear,
, 5. dodow, multitude] sin, a piece \ a fathom {of cloth) \

takii, a iveight of gold-dust, worth nearly 7d.
tap 6, 20 cowries (half a string);
G. kese, magnitude \ teteretd, breadth; ahoofe, beauiy.,
ayamye, kindness, llberalitg^ nt^m, swiftness.

7 . a b u f li w, ivraih ; o y a r e, sickness ; n n d, sleep ; a h 6 h u r u, heat ; ^

8. ok 6, fight] as aw, dance] aguan, flight] nsesS, exchange, j

•$3« 1. Proper nouns are names of single persons, things, places, I

times &c. to distinguish them from others of the same kind.

No a, Kwasi (persons); Fir aw (a river); Krgbg (a mountaiD,
country, language); Kiimase (a town); Fida, Owu-fida (days).

2. Common nouns denote whole classes of things, as mentioned in
§ 32, 1-5, and any single individual, or, when referring to materials
(§ 32, 2 6), any particle, belonging to such a class.

Collective nouns denote a collection of individual things forming one
whole; as: gmari, a people, nation] edgm, an arm g; k w a, e, a forest

3. Abstract nouns denote qualities, states and actions, considered
as unconnected with the substances to which they belong. § 32, 6-8.
The nouns belonging to § 32, 3-5. also are generally abstracts.

Names of things that have an independent existence, as those in
§ 32, 1. 2, are called concrete.

Hem. Since many nouns are used with different meanings, these
meanings may pass over from one class of nouns to another, from
concrete to more or less abstract, or from abstract to concrete notions.
E. g. akiitn, orange, iisd, ashes, are concrete nouns; but when used*

§ 34. 35. THE PARTS OF SPEECri. 21

to denote a colour, they are abstract; nkataso, covering, may de-
note the action of covering (abstract) or a covering thing (concrete).

In the following sentences: 1. gbo n'dkyi, he strikes his back,

2. ogyina n'akyi, he stands f)chind him,
* 3. ode n'akyi gyaw ne mm a, he leaves his property to his children,

4. nna no ^kyi oko bae, after those days a war arose,
the word akyi means 1. a thing (a distinct part of a human body);

2. a place (a part of the space contiguous to a human body) ;

3. a collection of things left in the back i. e. at the departure or death
of a person; 4. a time (indicated in Engl, by a preposition).

In 1. ne ho ye fe, 7/e (lit. his oidside) is handsome,

^ 2. nehoyedeh, //(? (Jiis body) is strong,

3. ote nenua ho, he sits near his brother,

4. odwen ne nua ho, hn thinks of his brother,

i the word ho means 1. tlie visible part of a body; 2. the body itself;
r 3. a place close to a body ; 4. the things concerning somebody , or,
the relation of an action to an object. Cf § 118. 1111'.

f

STRUCTUBE OF NOUNS,
34. In the structure of nouns we have to distinguish

1. the stem, which is either simple (§ 28, 3) or reduplicated (§ 21>, 4)
or compound (§ 30. 39);

2. \hQ prefix, which to a certain degree indicates the class of things (§ 35).

3. The stem may also include a suffix, which likewise denotes some

class of things. (§ 36—38.)

The simple and rpdnplicated stems do not want to be treated of Fo]iarately.
But we are now to speak of the various prefixes and suffices used in tln' for-
mation of nouns, and the classes of tliinjjfs indicated by them (§35 — 38), where-
upon the compound nouns will be classified and explained (§ 39), and then th«'
various tones and accents of nouns, especially of their stems, must be stated
(§40) before the changes of nouns in the connected form(§ 49) can be co sidered.

The Prefixes of Nouns.

\ 35. The prefixes-, by which most nouns are formed*), are as follows:

^ 1. labial: 0,0; 2. guttural: a, a; 3. nasal: m, n, n;

4. palatal: e, e; 5. compound: am, an, an.

For brevity's sake we shall call them: the prefix g, a, m, c, am.

1. The prefix g is chiefly used in names of ^jf3r.so>*s('^) and animals ('*),

i seldom in names of single inanimate things (^) and materials (*'), but

often in abstract nouns (*^), especially infinitives (§ 104, 1).

a. onipa, a man {human being)', gbarima, gbea, okunu, gyere,

gba, onua, gygnko, owura, ghene, gpanyin, sec § 41. 42. 38.

h. gsebg, a leopard: gpgnkg, a horse; okisi, a rat\ opete, a vulture'

c. otuo, a gun; gprae, a broom: gsekan, a knife '^ obo, a stone.

d. ode, yam; gtg, mashed yam:, ohu, a Jcind of x>(ip\ osu, rain.

e. h i a, poverty ; g k g m, hunger ; g w d w, cough ; o w u, death.

*) Cf. Riis' Grammatical Outline &e. § 22—31, cspec. on the notional variations indicated
l>y the "augments", as he calls these prefixes.

»S

22 ETYMOLOGY. §3&

2. The prefix 'a' is also used in names of persons (*) and animals (**),
but chiefly in names of individual things {^) sometimes in names of
materials (^^) and in abstract nouns (^).

a. agya, ako a, akor a, aber ante, aberewa, af an a, abofra, § 40.
h. aboa, apata (§42,2); akura, a mouse; agyinaraoa, a cat,

c. a be, apalmtrce\ ab en, a //orn; a f 6 a, a stt'on? ; akyene, a drumx
akyi, ihe back'^ ani, an ci/e; a no, the mouth '^ awia, the sun.

d. abon, harh\ ahai, hecr\ ahuru, foam, froth] amane, resin',
asm, snuff; a w i, meal, flour ; a b u r o w', corn; a d u a n', food,

e. aboro, injury; afero, shame; agoru, ^jZa?/; awi, theft.

3. The prefix m is used in names of materials {collective masses) (*),
in names of single things that are viewed as collective midtitudes ('*)
or consist of several parts (^), and in abstract nouns (*^).

a. u h w a, sa)id ; h k w a n, soup ; n k y e n e, salt ; n s u, ivater ; n s 6, ashes.

b. nifote, nkraiV, ntetea, different kinds of ants;

h h w i, hair ; n h i n, a root ; n t i n i, a bloodvessel ; n s o r o m a, a star ;
n t Y a m a, cowries ; m p e t e, smallpox.

c. nsa, the hand; nsenia, a pair of scales.

d. fikae, memory; nkae, remnant; nsew, a curse; ntam, an oath.

4. The prefix c has no decided character and is chiefly used before

nouns with simple stems that have no other prefix.

eko, a buffalo; esono, an elep]iant\ cdom, an army;
ese, a tooth; cti, the head; epo, the sea\ edin, a name.

5. The prefix am occurs seldom, and appears in some cases as a

variation of the prefix 'a'.

a m pah' A k. d p a n e, a bat ; a n s ^ m' Ak . d s k m', a guinea-hen ;
a m p e s 1 Ak. a p e s i o, boiled plantains ; a n t w e r i, a ladder.

Bemarks 1. Many nouns, especially compounds of two and more
syllables and exotics, have no prefix at all.

^. 'J'he prefix g is usually dropped in connection with preceding
words that do not end in open vowels (a, e, o); cf. § 49, 1.

It is not much used in the Fante dialect of Cape Coast. The ^Mfantsi Gram-
DKir by J). L. Carr and J. P. Brown'' has it in nouns of perpoiis only in a
fow instances, replaces it in other nouns by o, and ascri])ps it (on page 67).
only to the dialect of Gomua and thereabouts, where »it is made use of to
comprehend all the vowel augments* (?).

3. 'I'hc prefix e is still more easily dropped than the prefix o, and
is chiefly used when the word stands independent, e. g. at the head
of a sentence.

Some individuals use it in this case even before the prefix m, in
order to make this nasal prefix more distinctly heard.

4. The prefixes a, m, am, are not dropped like o and e.

5. On the prefixes in the plural, see § 42, 1.2.

I

I

§ 36. 37. TUE PAHT8 OF SPEECH. 23

'Jlic Suffixes of Nouns.

30« The palatal suffix (§ 29, 3) enlarges the last vowel of i\\v
stem into a long vowel or diphthong, or, with a final consonant (►!*
the stem, forms a new syllable. — It is used, together with prefixes
or without such, to form nouns from verbs, either simple, or compoun-
ded with the subject or object of the action expressed by the verb.

The nouns thus derived fall under several classes. 'J'hey denote

1. the agent or instrument of the action:

tui, a brush] fitae, a fan; oprae, a broom '^ so he, a strainer -.,
from tu, to brush, fita, to fan, pra, to sweep, son so, to strain \
• gnOfge, a benevolent person \ from fgw, to moisten, a no, mouth;
lit. one who moistens (maJiCS fat) another's moutfi;

ofarebae, an author, inventor; from fa, to tale, ba. to come;
lit. one ivho took (or found out e. g. a song or play) and came with it.

akasae, a tingling instrument'^ from kasa, to speak, talk.

2. the action itself, especially repeated action, manner of action, or
a state or quality as the residt of action (abstract) :

hkasae, talking; mfonee, loathing, from fono, to loathe;
nneyee, doings, fr. ade, thing, ye, to do;
hoae, whiteness, fr. ho a, to be white.

L 3. the thing produced by the action, or reduced by it to a certain state
(concrete) :

mpomponee, wrinkles, fr. p o n o, to bend, p o m p o n o, to wrinkle ;

mfrafrae, a mixture, fr. fra, to mix;

nan ho we, dried meat, fr. nTim, meat, how, to dry.

4. the place of action:
a n o m e , drinking-place ; a s o e e, resting-place ; m m c h e, ncighhourhintd.

5. the time of action :

adckyee, adesae, akokgbghe, owigyinae, § 39, 5f.

I Bern. On the low tones of such words, with high tone only at the
J end and the accent preceding it, see § 40, 4*.

ST. The diminutive suffix, originally ba, equal to the noun gba,

\ cliUdj is wa; when joined to final m or n, it is ma; when joined to

a final 'a', sometimes als to e or o, it is contracted with these vowels

iato a. § 20, 4. It has usually high tone; preceding syllables often

ii\ assume low tone.

The diminutive noun, formed from another noun by the addition
of this suffix, sometimes assumes the prefix *a' ; in some cases redu-
pUcation of the original word takes place. (Cf. Riis § 36. 37.)

The diminutive suffix denotes:

1. relative littleness, or smallness in general, perhaps with some other
change of meaning compared with the original word.

24 ETYMOLOGY. § 3a

bepowa, a 5wa?Z mountain, a JiiJl, from b^pow, o mountain;

aboawa, aboa, a small animal, - a bo a, aw animal;

a k w a e w 4, underwood, hushes, - e k w a c, a toood, forest;

ahyemmd, a boat, - ehyeh, a ship;

adomma, nnonngma, a small hell, - cdon, a hell, clock;

dua\ a shruh, a small piece of wood, - cdu4, a tree] wood;

ka, kawd, a ring: to a, a small hox, - to a, a hox'^

d a d e w d, a nail ; d a r e w a, a fishing-hooJc, - d a d ^, iron ;

abasa, a withered arm, - basa, aw arm;

aniwa, an eye; niwa, a single cowry, - ani, an eye, face*

2. youthful age and old age:

abarimdwd, aberantewA, akwankwa, abeawa, ababii' &c.
akwakora, aberewd, — see § 41 , 1 .

3. tbe female sex:
at a, aw lira', gkra, abora, Kwakyewa &c. — see §41,3-5.

4. Some nouns assume the diminutive suffix in the plural form, §42,4. 1

38. Th^ personal suffixes ni (F. nyi), used only in the sing, num-
ber, and f (Ak. f oo), used in the sing, and plur. numbers {§ 42, 3. 4)
are originally independent nouns, meaning person, people, but are so
frequently, and almost exclusively, used in composition, in order to
form personal nouns, that we may well call them suffixes.

1. When personal nouns are formed from verbs, or rather from, .
their infinitives, frequently compounded with their objects, the usual
suffix in the singular is fo, yet the other (ni) is also found in some '
cases.

The verbs are most frequently taken in an active sense:

okyerewfo, a writer, from kyerew, to write;

gtomf6, a smith, - ton o, to forge;

gtdmfo, an enemy, - tan, fo hate;

osuani, a scholar, - sua,, to learn:

oguadiul, a trader, - digua, /o fradfe, aguadi, § 39, 5/;

g ban torn', a mason, - to aban, /o huild a stonehouse;

gtamanw6mf6, a weaver, - n w e n e n t a m a, fo weave cloth.

Sometimes the verb is taken in a passive sense:

gsomjifo, a person sent, a messenger, from soma, to send;
opirdf6, a wounded person, - pira, fo tvound.

Sometimes both the active and the passive sense are admissible:

gd6fo, a loving or a heloved person, fr. dg, to love.

2. When personal nouns are formed from names of countries aiuM
X>laces, the suffix in the singular is always ni:

Ohuani, a man from the country Htla.

Okranni, a man from the town or country Nkran, Akra;

Okiiroponni, a man from the town Akiiropgn.

§ 39. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 25

3. When personal nouns are formed from other abstract or concrete
nouns, the suffix in the singular is either ni or fo.

osikani, a rich person, from sik4, gold;

o(ief6, a wealthy person^ - ade, things;

ohidni, a poor person. - o\\\'k^ poverty^

obusudni, a relation, kinsman y - a b u s u 4, family ;

o b u 8 u f 6, a mischievous person, - m m u s li, mischief;

ohdntanni, a provd man, - ahdnta fi, ^ncZe;

okontomponi, a ra^wmw^a^or, - nkontompo, calumny;

otorofo, a liar, - atoro, a lie.

The prefix a or m of the original word is exchanged for the per-
sonal prefix o, as we see in several of these examples ; yet there are
exceptions, e. g.

mmarahy^fo, a lawgiver, from hye mmara, to give a laiv;
iikomhyefo, a soothsayer, - hyenkom, /o soothsay;
mpoan6ni,aw?aw from the coast, - m p o a n 6 , ^/tc sea-coast

Sometimes the original word is reduced to a shortened form :

otufo, a musketeer, from otiio, a gun;

o\i\x^ 6, a man full of sores and wounds, - ekiiru, a sore;
o n i n k u f 6, a jealous man^ - n i n k li n u, jealousy;

onokwdfo, a truthful man, - nokwdre, truth.

Rem. 1. The relation of the original word to the person may be
as different as that of a noun in the possessive case, cf. § 193.

2. The tones of the personal suffix and of the syllables preceding
it present a great variety; e. g.
obofo, a hunter, gbofo, a creator^ ob6f6, a messenger (§ 40, 4. 7. 9).

Compound Nouns.

39* In genuine compound nouns we distinguish the fundamental
and the qualifying component (each of which may be a simple word,
or itself a compound, as will be shown under 8). The former, always
a noun, expresses a general notion which is particularized by the
latter, so that the compound denotes a particular kind of the thing
denoted by its fundamental word.

Spurious compounds are also made up of two or more words, but
none of them expresses the genus of the thing of which the whole
compound denotes a species; such a compound, as it were, occupies
Uie place of the qualifying word, and the general notion (person or
tnimal, or thing) is left to be supplied. —

We make ten classes of compounds; in 1. 2. 6. 7. the qualifying
component succeeds, and in 3-5. it precedes, the fundamental part;
ni 8. we have combinations of the cases in 1-7, and 9. 10. contain
ipnrioas compounds.

26 ETYMOLOGY. § 39

1. Compounds of a noun and an adjective,

adcbone, had tiling^ i. c. evil; oponkese, great doovy i. c. gate
ayeforo, § 30, 1. o hem pa..., § 51. ohcmforo, § 70,2.

Some adjectives, e. g. pgn, Ia)ge, or certain forms of adjectives, am
some verbal adjectives (§69, 2 d) are only used in composition:

d u p o 11 = d u a k e s e, a large tree : d u \v u i = d u a a e w u i. a dead tree
g sennah = asem a eda ho, a precedence^ an example \
anh6maguan = nli6ma a aguan, a dry or ivithered skin, hide.

Hem. To this class of compounds we reckon also the words babi
da ben, dabi (§ 60, 3. 4.), and the nouns compounded" with numeral
(§ 80), though the latter might also be taken to class 2 or 3.

2. Compounds of a noun and an appositive noun.

The qualifying component is a noun in apposition, as: gbarima
obea, onini, gbere (§41, 1), gtan, gsae, nta, or some other com
pound or derivative personal noun.

gbabarima... § 41, 2. gbanintdn, a man that has children;
g b a t a h, a ivoman that has children ; g k 6 k g t a n, a hen that has chickens
oguansae, a tvether; gpgnkgsae, a castrated horse, gelding.
ntutd, a double-harelled gun; nkwantd, a crosswag; (fr. otuo, gkwaiV
g s g f p a n y i h, a highpriest ; g b a h ii h u n i, a wo rthlcss f'elloiv ;
gbanyansafo, gbadwemma, a tvise, prudent person.

Hem. The diminutives (§ 37) originally belong to this class.

3. Compounds of a noun with an attributive noun in the possessiv
case before it.

a. Both components are concrete, sometimes abstract, nouns.

g h e n e b a, a king^s son, prince ; a h em fi, the king's hotise, court, palace,
from oL^ne, a king; gba, a child *^ ofi, a dwelling, home, residence

a s o n h 6 m a, an clephanVs hide ; a s o m m e n, a s o n sO , ivory ;

fr. esono, an elephant, nhoma, a skin, aben, a horn, ese, a tooth.

Hem. Among the qualifying components we notice the word b5rfi
or biiro (§17,6) which is not used as an independent noun anc
marks the thing named by the fundamental component as coming fron
Europe or the Europeans.

a b 8 r g n 6 m a, a pigeon ; abiirogua, a chair with a back;
m m o r g s a, rum, brandy ; m m u r o n n 6, olive-oil, siveet-oil ;
from anomd, a bird; agua, a seat; us a, strong drink: hho, oi

b. The qualifying component is a verb; on dissolving such cot
pounds the verb must be rendered by an adjective sentence.

atuboa = aboa a otu, an animal which flies, a bird, a hat &€-
twabo, a touchstone, =gbo a wgde twa sikafwe, a stone by wh^
gold is tried; susudua, a measure, =dua a wgde susuw a*J
a stick which they take and measure things.

§ 39. EUPHONY. 27

jRem, 1. Among the fundamental components of 3 a. &., to wliicli
also the personal suffixes § 38. originally belong, we notice as very
frequent the words ade (a dee), tiling j as cm, tvord, thiny^ matter^
the former for concrete, the latter for abstract notions, and bew, here,
be a, for place,, time, manner.

ahenne(e), the royal inslgniae; ahens^m, a hinges doings;
atetede, a thing of the old time; atetes6m, a story of ancient times'^
akyede, a thing presented, a present; at6s6m, a tvord heard, hearsay;
da bew, ddbere, a place to lie on; trabere, trabea, a place to sit;
tebed, state, condition; ye bed, mariner of doing.

Hem. 2. Among the compounds in 3 b. we may rQckon the infini-
tives compounded with ye and na, § 105, 5.

c. The fundamental word is a noun of place and relation, § 118, and

the whole compound a noun of place, sometimes of time or manner,

or a concrete noun.

sdrem' (serem), sdreso (seresoo), a x)raitie, steppe, wilderness;

fr. sdre Ak. sere, a sort of grass (lit. in or on the grass):
afiase, the under part of a dwelling, a store-house, cellar, prison ;
mfikyiri, the place behind the dwelling \ fr. ofi, a home]
m m o f r 4 a se, childhood ; fr. a b o f r a, a child.
an6m\ the inner parts of the mouth; as6m\ do. of the ear;
nsam\ nsay4m\ the palm of the hand;
ydm\ the cavity and contents of the chest and belly \
mpoano, the sea-shore, fr. epo, sea, and a no, border',
nsan6d = sare ano no ho a, the border of the steppe.

4. Compound nouns of quality, made from the subject and t\\(i pre-
dicative adjective of certain sentences, the latter being turned into a
noun, and the former qualifying it as an attribute in the possessive case.

ahoof^, beauty, fr. ne h6 ye fe, he (lit. his outside^ body) is fine;
a&Ooden, disobedience, fr. n'aso ye den, lit. his ear is hard;
abooden, dearness, high price, fr. ebo ye den, lit. (its) stone is hard.

5. Compounds made from an infinitive or another verbal noun, as
the fundamental component, and the subject or any complement of the
corresponding verb, as the qualifying component, equal to an attribute
in the possessive case.

a. Infinitives or other verbal nouns of intransitive verbal phrases
with a specific subject. Cf. § 105, 4.

ah op op 6, trembling; aniwu, shame; ay amy 6, liberality.

b. Verbal nouns of such phrases, formed by the palatal suffix,
asomd w oee, ahod woee (=:ahodwo^, jpeace; anifurae, blindness.

c. Verbal nouns of other sentences, denoting a time.

adekyee, day-break, day-light, adesae, evening, night,
fr. adekye, the things appear, ade sa, the things come to an end;

akokgbohe, cock-crow; awiapuei, sunrise; owigyinae, noon,
fr.owia agyina, the sun ha^ stopped, attained Us highest stand.

28 ETYMOLOGY. § 39.

d. Infinitives of intransitive verbs with a nominative complenient.
kes6y^, being or becoming great: onipay^, being a man.

e. Infinitives &c. of verbal phrases with a specific object or other
complement.

a hope, self-love '^ aniyiyi, neglect'^ asotwe, punishment

f. Infinitives &c. of verbs with a passive or resultive object or a
specific complement.

a g u a d i, trading ; d w o n t o, singing ; a s a b o vv, drunkenness. '

g. Infinitives &c. of verbs (verbal phrases) with locative complements.

a s e f i, a s e h y e, beginning ; a n o b o a, gathering ; a n i d a n , alteration ;
a n i m k a, reprimand ; a n a fi m u h y e, restoration.

Hem. This formation is limited to nouns of place having the pre-
fix 'a\ and even with them the formation 6 b. is more frequent.

6. Compounds like those in 5 f. g.^ but in which the infinitive comes
first and the complement follows.

a. = bf. Exceptional formations of rare occurence.

nimdee=:adenim, knowledge (of things), intelligence \
a h u m g*b g ( r e) ^= m m o b r o h u n u, commiseration.

b.=bg. Verbal nouns formed by the nasal prefix.

mfiase, mfitiase, nhyease, mmgase, beginning',
n h y e s o, oppression ; m m o a a n o, gathering ;
n n a n a n i , perversion ; n k a a n i m , reproaching ;
n h y e a n d n m u, compensation ; n k e k a h 6, addition.

Bern. Several compounds of this kind denote not only actions, but
also concrete objects and means of action; in this case they belong
to the 9th class.

7. Compounds of two verbs turned into nouns, either real infinitives
(§ 105) or verbal nouns denoting actions. In these compounds the
two parts may be considered as co-ordinate, or, the second as an
apposition to the first, as in class 2.

s^fre, weeping connected with calling^ i. e. imploring \
gdddwen, lying and thinking, i. e. meditation;
aforosiah, ascending and descending, going up and down.
abuadii (mm-), fasting, fr. bua, ^o cOicr (the food) and da, ^o slce]^
nkogu, a fighting and prostrating, i. e. defeat.

8. Ttvofold or manifold genuine compounds are such, in which either

the qualifying or the fundamental component or both are compound.

Item. 1. They do not, however, form an own class, but belong \»
any one of the preceding classes. In the following examples we se^
parate the two components by a short line and indicate the class oC^
the whole compound by its figure (1 to 7), adding in parenthesis th^
class or classes to which the single component, when viewed as ^^
word by itself, would belong.

§ 39. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 29

(3)1 osafohen-kdma, -aw under-officer, subaltern officer \

3 (1) a s u-b o n t e n, a river (nsii, tvaier, abouteh =borgfi tenten, a street);
(3.1)3 asubonten-aiio, the batik of a river;

(1) 3 o g 11 a n t e n - h 6 m a, a shccp'Slcin ;
(1,3)3 o guantehhom a-hy efo, a dresser of sheep-skinSf a tawcr;
(1)3(1) abouten-ndmpan, a house icith an open front towards the

(1)5 ayeforo-hyid, a new- wife's meet i n(j i, a. a wedding, [street.
5(5 (/) bo-aset6, ( patience^ fr. gtg iie bo ase, lit. he ptds his heart

5(6) abo-toase,i doioij sets it at rest, i. e. he is patient;
ani-daso, hope, tr. n'ani da.. so, his eye rests on..;
(3)5(6) anim-guase, shame, confusion; \ fr. n'anim gii ase,
(3.5.6)3 animguase-de, disgraceful acts;) lit. his face falls down;
5(6.3) abo-tgyam, satisfaction, contentment^ heart's ease,

5(7) abo-dwokyere, long suffering; fr. ne bo dwo kye ;
5(7.6) aho me-tetras6, excessive trouble (ahometew a etra so);

7(6) mfakaho, addition; mmgtohg, postponement.

Rem. 2. In wgkg iindkranna, thei) go to sleep with valediction
for sleeping, i. e. fheg are on friendly terms with each other, we have
three verbs combined. — In apesemadi the verbal noun pe has
its object s em :^ as em (as in cl. 6) and besides, a dependent verb in
the consecutive form (adi): lit. liking a palaver to settle, i. e. litigious
disposition, intermeddling. — In apese(ne)nk6nya the verbal noun
pe has for its object a noun-sentence introduced by the conj. se: lit.
a liking that (he) alone gets, i. e. selfishness, greediness.

9. Spurious compounds from adjective sentences of which some mem-
ber or members are omitted. The remaining parts, united in the
compound, are :

a. an attribute of the subject, and the verb :

ank6nam = nea ne hko nam, one who walks alone^ a lone traveller.

b. a verb (active or causative), and its object or locative complement:

obgadee=nca gbgg adee, he ivlio created the things i. e. the creator.
gtvveasee, aboa a gtvve neho ase, a beast sneaking on the ground, snake.
bonsu (aboa a gbg nsu gu, the beast that spurts water) a whale,
agyenkwa (nea ogye iikvva, he who preserves life) a saviour.
ab o n u a (ade a wgde bg nnua, the thing 2vith tvhich they strike trees) an axe.
Amosu (nea gma osu, he who gives rain), the Bain-giver (God).
ankgbea (asafo a wghkg babi), the king's body-guard.
gdaso (ade a eda so, a thing lying above) a coverlet;
abotiri (ade a ebg tiri) a diadem; abgso, aboniii, a belt.

A great number of compound verbal nouns are equal to infinitives

in form, but denote concrete things (cf. above 6 b. Item.):

hkyekyeremii (ade a wgde kyekyere woii mu), a belt^ girdle;
hkataso, nnuraho, covering, a cover; mmuano, a seam.

c. two verbs:

nnikae (nea wodii ma ekae), things left uneaten^ remains;
ntodii (ade a wgtg dii) things bought and eaten, i. c. expenses.

30 ETYMOLOGY. § 40

afirihyia (ebere a efi hyia, a time which goes forth and meets), a year.
obaeanko (nea gbae a wahkg bio), one who came and did no more go.

d. an adjective sentence preceded by a subordinate adverbial sentence;

anseeyi (gsekan a woansew a eyi, a knife which, though you have not

sharpened it, takes off), a razor.
tease(a)enam (ade a wote ase a, enam, a thing which moves while yon

are sitting), a carriage,

c. the object of an adjective sentence:
gnamgntdnten (nea gwg gn., one that takes long steps), a long-shanks.

10. Spurious compounds, consisting of (or containing) complete (impe-
rative) sentences, used in peculiar phrases.

O ni a n o h y e de n, he gives (i. e. tells) him : he-strong, i. e. he condoles him.
Wflye kgfabera, he has grown (to an age in which he can be told:)

go take (it) come, i. e. as it were, a fetch-someihmg.
Ehg ye krab^fwe, there is such a marvel that it makes one send word

to others (kra), saying: come and look!

The sentence twe ma mentwe, draw that I may draw, i. e. do what
you please, and let me do tvhat I x^leasc, has been made the qualifying
component of a genuine compound in * W 6 d 1 t \y e m it m c n t w e d e, theij
arc disunited, at variance*^

Tone and Accent of Nouns.

40. Concerning the various tones and accents of nouns, we notice
first, that in the independent form the prefix has usually lotc tove
without stress; and with regard to the tones and stress of the stcnu
we arrange them under the following 12 classes.

A. Stems beginning with low tone.

1. Stems with lotv tone throughout, of 1 to 5 syllables:

epo, wgfa, adamfo, kontromfi, abobonua, kyereben kuku.

2. Stems with low tone throughout, leaving the principal accent to
the prefix: ^bogye, on ok 6.

I'he prefix has high tone in

ad6sa, dmara (dmonA.), A'b^ (F.^ Ay aba? Ak. Yaw.^ Akp. Ya).

3. Stems with low and high tone, of 2 — 6 syllables; the accent

coincides with the high tone on the last syllable or on the last hut

one (seldom the last but two).

akofl, aberewd,* abotokurA, aky erekyerekwdn;
ghahfni, gsafohc^ne, ahenniakyiri; gsafohenk finini.

* Most diminutives ending in wa have such tones.

§ 40. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 31

4. Ditto of 1 — 5 syllables, with the stress imniediately before the
(first) high tone.

ka, ankii*, hkae*, oniid, awura*, gdesllni, awnrakwa',
agyinamod; akwadwero, wgfc^sewa, iikonson k6n8on,
g s a f o h e m p a n y i n ; d o m p o n i n i.

In some few words the prefix has high tone and a decided accent:

ako', ansam', Aferaw', ankord.

* Most diminutives ending in a, and nouns formed by the palatal
suffix and ending in e, i, ae, ai, ee, ge, oi, ui, have the stress on
the first part of these long vowels and diplithongs, and end with high
tone on the final part.

5. Stems with loiv, high and middle (or low) tone, of 2-5 syllables,
with the stress on the first high syllable:

ntata, abarima, oliianf, gbosons6mf6, aky ei'ikye nn urn.

6. Ditto with the accent immediately before the high tone:
gpgdg, gbarfmd, okyigylnjlfo, gmansobojlfo,

An addition to the classes 5 and 6 are:
Stems with low, high, low, high (and perhaps again low) tones, of 3-7
syllables, in which two of the preceding cases 1-6 are combined:
m f i n i m f i n i, a s e p a t e r e, k w a s i ji m a ii k w a', n h w e A n h w e a b 6.

B. Stems beginning with high tone.

7. Stems with high tone throughout^ of 1-4 syllables,
with the accent on the first syllable :

aba, gba, agya, gb(5a, gbdbea, akokonini.

In nouns consistinof of a prefix and a monosyllabic stem, the lattor has so
roprulariy high tone, that it does not want an accentual mark.

8. Ditto with the accent on the prefix :
ano, aboa, knommane, {iniberesem.

9. Stems with high and middle (or low) tone, of 1-5 syllables, with
the principal accent on the first high, and a secondary accent on
the only or second middle-toned syllable:

nkji^ (remembrance)^ gkgr^, ogyfgyefo, okontomponf,
gbosomaketew; owi'ira, sirikyl, mafio; nt^t(3a.

10. Ditto with the principal accent on the prefix and a secondary
accent on the middle-toned syllable :

gkard, ok 6 row, h'koron, abdkdn.

11. Stems with high, low and high tone, of 3-5 syllables, with the

principal accent on the first high syllable and a secondary accent

on the high syllable subsequent to the low tone:

mf^nser^, asomfand or asonomfoa, akltereku,
ak^kdntwere, gpdnt weonf ni.

32 ETYMOLOGY. § 41 .

12. JDitto of 2-4 syllables, with accents on low tones, either

a. only before the last high tones, or

h. also before the first high tone, i. e. on the prefix.

a. duku', topo', mano', pdntantwere.
&. abdba, ^b6d6', ^hohow', afofan'to,

An addition to the classes 7-12 are:

Stems with high^ lou\ high, low (and perhaps again high) tones, of

4-6 syllables, in which two of the cases 7-12 are combined, with

two principal accents:

dabbdabo, nsakyiusay ani\ ahdn^niankdnsa.

Hem, Stems with a very short vowel before an inserted r or u
followed by a high-toned vowel, are considered as beginning with a
high tone, though the very short vowel, when not suppressed, have
rather low tone:

(cl. 7) obard, hkard, atoro (or obrd, nkrd, atoro), ntrdma;
(cl. 9) prdko, nkardri', ab or on 6 ma, nkur6nnua, aturiikuku.

GENDEB,

41. Gender, as the distinction of sex, is limited (in Tshi Grammar)
to some common names and proper names of persons, and, if wanted,
to names of animals.

1. The male or female sex is distinguished by different words:

obarima, F. gbanyin, a man\ obea, oba, g(ba)basia, a woman.

onini, the male of animals', gber^, the female of animals.

a k o r a, a k w a k o r a', an old man ; a b e r e w a, art old woman.

a b e r a n t e, a k w a n k w a , a b db a , a b e af 6, a young tvomaii.

a young man;

aberantewd, aberantekwd, abawa, a maiden, lass^

a youth, lad\

abarimawa, a hoy\ abeawa, a girl.

akod, a male slave '^ a fan a, a female slave.

agya, (Ak.) ose, father'^ ena, oni, awo, mother.

okiinu, a husband; gyere (Ak. oye), a wife.

2. It is distinguished by compounding some of the nouns mentioned
above with nouns of common gender :

gbdbarima, gbdbanin, a son] obdba, obAbea, a daughter.

o n u a b a r i m a, a b rother ; o n u a b e a, a sister.

gpg Ilk onini, a stallion', opohkgbere, a mare.

nantvvinini, a bull; nantwibere, a cow.

odwennini, a ram\ oguammere, a eice.

gkokonini, a cock; akokgbere, a hen.

ghene, a king; ghemmea, a queen.

Or such nouns arc added in apposition, e. g.
a b o f r a, a child ; a b o f r a b a r i m a, a boy, a b o f r d b e a, a girl.

§42. THE PAKT8 OF SPEECH. 33

3. The feminine form is distinguished from the masculine by adding
the diminutive suffix to the latter, often with an additional change
of the prefix:

at a, a male twin; at a', a female twin;

o w u r a (A k. o w i r a), master; a w u r a (Ak. a wira wd), mistress ;

okara, a male slave^ okara, a female slave,

destined to accompany the master in death,
Obiirbni, a European ; a b g r a (abor o wa), a female European .

Of this kind are some proper names of persons, e. g.

Kwakye, Ofori, Oben; Kwakyewa, Oforiwa, Obenewa;

Kordnten or T^hkoran; KorAntemma, T^ukoramma.

4. Proper names of persons, according to the week-day of their birth :

Masculin e : Feminine :

Kw^sf; Akosiia (Akwasiba), /r. Kw&sida, Sunday.

Kwadw6, F. Kogyo, A'dw6wa, F.Agwewa, „ Dw6da, Monday.
Kw i b S n d, F. Kobena, A'b^na, F. Abraba, „ B^n^da, Tuesday.
Kw a k u, A k u d (Aku wa), „ W u k d d a, Wednesday.

Yaw, F. Kwaw, Ya (Yawa), F. A'b^, „ Ydw'da,* Thursday,

Kofi, Afiia (Afiwa), „ Fida, Friday.

Kwam^, F. Kwamena, Am'md, „ M 6m ened&, Saturday.

5. Proper names of persons given them according to the number

of children :

Mensa — Mans a, the\third child;

An an — Manan, ^Ae fourth child;

A son & B6tw6, the 7th & 8th child, are common to both genders;

Akron — Nkromma, the 9th child;

Bftdii — Baduwa, the%10th child,

Ata — At a (Atawa), a twin;

Tawia — Tawia, a child born after tunns.

NUMBER.
42. The plural is formed in the following ways:

1. Nouns with the prefixes o- e- or without a prefix
Msame the prefix a- :

ohene, a king, — ahene; ekuw, a heap, — akuw;

gy^td, a lion, — agyata; nantwi, an ox, a cow, — anantwi.

2. Nouns with the prefixes o, e, a, am (an, an), or without a prefix,
^ome the prefix m or n, n, according to the initial consonant of

. the stem (§ 18) :

oh SL^ a child^ offspring, — mm a; apata, a /i^A, — mpata;

Qkwased, a fool, — nkwasea; Amp4n', a bai, — mpan;
§da, a day, — una; kdku, a potj — nkuku;

^^hb&^ a beast, animal^ — mmoa; tump4n, a/^A;, — ntumpAn.

§41, 1-3. obarima, obea, aberante, abab&, akoa, afana, abofra, ata,
mmarima, mmea, mmerante, mmaba, nkoa, mfana, mmofra, nta.

3

34 ETYMOLOGY. § 42.

3. Nouns with the suffix n i, denoting persons (§ 38), assume the
suffix fo instead of ni, besides changing the prefix o- into a-:
obibinf, a negro, — abibifo; gbantoni, a mason, — abantofo.

The plural- prefix may be wanting, or it is nasal, following the

prefix of the noun from which the noun in question is derived:

Obiironf, a European, — Aburofo or Br of 6;

Ofsinteni, a Fante-man, — Mfantefo;

Okrknui, an Akra-man, — Nkrahfo (from Nk ran, ^ra).

4. Some nouns assume the suffixes fo and wa or ma,

besides the change of their singular prefix :

omdnnf, a country-man, acquaintance, — amannifo;

afe, a mate, companion, — mfefo;

o y a r e, a sickness, — nyarewa; saf6, a key^ — n s a f e w a.

ade (Ak. adee), a thing, — nnewd, nneema.

a d w e, a palm-nut-kernel, — u n w S a.

5. Some nouns, expressing family relation, friendship and other asso-
ciation, assume the appositive pronoun or suffix nom, frequently with-
out changing the singular prefix;

agya, father j — a gy a-nom; en^, mother, — ena-nom;

n a n d, a grand-parent, — nana-nom, n ena-nom;

o k u n u, a husband j — okunu-nom; oy^re, a wife, — oyere-nom ;

o n u d {= oni ba), a brother, sister, — onua-nom, anua-nom;

owiiri (owira), master, — owura-nom, aw ur a- nom;

gy oh k6, adamfo, a friend, — oyghko-nom, nnamfo-nom;

Kwasi (§41,4) — Kwasi-nom, Kw, and his followers, S. §63.

tefere w, a cockroach, — nteferew-nom, cockroaches and other beetles.

6. Some compounds assume a plural prefix also, or only, before their

second component part:

gsofopanyih, a highpriest, — asofo-mpanyih;

gheneba, a child of a king, — ahene-mma;

aburuwdba, a child of a slave, vile person, — mmuruwa-mma;

hyidddh, a house of assembly, hyia-adah;

home da, the day of rest, — home-nna.

7. Sometimes the plural form is repeated:

ekuw, a heap, — akuwakiiw; epgw, a knot, — apgwapgw;
efi, a sheaf, — afiafi; etgw, a lump, — ntgwntgw.

'i'he repetition sometimes signifies all the different sorts of a thing:
mmoawa-mmoawa, ifisects and animalcules of all kinds.

8. Some nouns have two or more plural forms:

gh e n e, a king, -r— . a h en e, a h e m f o ;

gpanyih, a grawn person, elder, — mpanyin, mpanyimfo;

obiremp6h, a man of wealth or high rank, ab..., ab...fo;

gkwased, a fool, stupid fellow, — hkwasea, hkwaseafo;

gmah, a nation, — amah, amdhamdh;

ade, a thing, — ade, nnewd, nnewa-nn^wa, nneema, nneema-nn^ema.

§ 43. 44. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 35

413. Many nouns have only one form for the singular and plural :

1. Nouns formed with the nasal prefix, denoting

a. individual things, perhaps consisting of several parts:

mpa, nnae, abed, couch] nsa, the hand; u 8 ^uin^ a pair of scales.

J), collective multitudes :

mfgte, nkrah\ nt^t^a, different kinds of ants.

2. Names of parts of the human body :

ani, the face^ eye; anim\ the face; ^niwa, the eye\ a so, the ear\
a no, the mouth; afono, the cheek\ efwene, the nose; ese, a tooth '^
t e k r e ui d, the tongue ; k 6 m a ( Ak. konon4), the heart

There are exceptions: eti, otiri, the head\ atiri, heads of cowries \
enan, ^/^c /bo/, pi. nan, an an ; onammgn, //<e so/e, pi. anammon;
domp^, Ak. kasae, a hone^ pi. nnompe, nkasae.

3. Several other nouns :

e s o n 0, an elephant ; b a t af o, a wild hoar ; e d g m, an army ;
asafo, a company, abah, a house of stone '^ edih, a name.

Bern. The singular or plural number of such nouns may be shown
a. by numerals or adjectives :
mfgte b i a k o, a white ant ; nsa abieh, two hands'^
aniwa koro, one eye\ tekrema apem, a thousand tongues'^
esono bebre, many elephants'^ edin horow, different names.

h. by the single or reduplicated form of the verb :
wo to aban, they build a housc^ wgtot6 abah, they huild houses;
gkyer^w nh6ma, he writes a letter '^
gkyer^ky^rew hh6ma, he writes letters.

44. Nouns admitting no distinction of singular and plural are :

1. Nouns denoting collective masses or materials:

sikd, gold] d^de, iron] sanya, tin] awowd, brass] Asikrh, sugar]
aburow', corn, maize] em 6, rice] ahai, beer\ nso, ashes.

Bern. When dade means: an iron tooh sanya: a tin-plate^ pewter-
dish^ awowa: a brass-basifi, — then they have a plural number:
nnade, nsanyl, hwowa. — A single grain of corn is indicated by
the adjective fua, single: biirofua, plur. mmiirofua.

Different words may be used for the same thing concerning number:

ntrdma, screw d, cowries (as a collective mass, no sing.^]
niwa, a single cowry] niwa du (nuodii), ten cowries.

2. Names of actions, states and qualities (abstract nouns):

OS a, war] ok 6, fight] ohla., poverty] gkgm, hunger] aguare, bathing]
ahogdeh, strength] tnxni, power; likwa, asetra, life] nsew, curse.

Instead of plural forms of such words, as: warSj fightings, powers,
curses, thefts, we may use reduplications, or the adjectives horow
(Ky. hodog), different, bebre, much, many, or the nouns ahorow
(ahodog), kinds, or composition with as em, word, doing, mpen, times.

36 ETYMOLOGY. § 45. 46.

k 6, a k 6, fighting, — ak6k6-ak6k6, repeated fightings, quarrels ;
kotow, bowing downy — akotok6t6w, repeated hows\
asafo bo row, (different) companies'^ osd b^.bre, many wars;
t u m i a b o r w, (kinds of) powers ; a w i f o s ^ m, thieving, thefts ;
wako hkdpen du, he has fought ten battles.

As a kind of plural formation we may also consider the infinitive forms

with nasal prefix and palatal suffix: mmae, hkoe, §104,4.5.

CASE, I

45. Tbo case of a noun is tbe relation in wbicb it stands to other
words in tbe same sentence.

1 . A noun is in the nominative case, or is called a nominative, when
it denotes the subject of a sentence, answering the question : wlio? what?

2. A noun is in the vocative case, when used in calling or address-
ing a person or thing.

3. A noun in the possessive (or genitive) case denotes the owner or
possessor, or tbe author, origin, home, source, place, time, stuff or ma-
terial, contents &c. of another thing, or the whole of which another
thing is a part or member &c. (See § 193.) It answers the questions:
whose? of tvhom? of what?

4. A noun in tbe objective case is tbe object of an action. It is
called accusative, when it denotes a person or thing affected or pro-
duced or otherwise concerned by an action, answering the questions:
whom? what? It is called dative or terminative, — on the questions:
to whom? for whom? also: from, whom? (Cf. § 200-206.)

5. We add to these tbe locative case, on tbe question: where? re-
ferring to nouns of place which form tbe necessary complements of
certain verbs. (Cf. § 207. 208.)

40* In Tshi these different relations are either indicated merely
by the position of the nouns, or they require their own verbs.

The latter case must be reserved for the Syntax; the former would also
belong thither, but, on account of the changes of tone and elisions of prefixes
frequently connected with it, we bring it here.

1 . The position of a noun in the nominative case is usually before the
verb, the subject of which it is ; in some cases it stands after the verb, es-
pecially when the noun is not the subject, but the nominative com-
plement of the verb. Only when standing after the verb, the form or
tone of tbe noun may be changed, under certain conditions which
will be stated in § 49.

2. A noun in the vocative case usually stands before the words spo-
ken to the addressed person, not closely connected with them, but se-
parated by a comma, and is not changed by them in its form.

M m o f r a, m li n t i ^ ! Children, listen / O w li r &, mini! Master, here lamf

§ 47. THE PARTS OF RPEECH. 37

Exceptionally the vocative may be placed behind^ and, not from the
connection, but by the impassionate feeling, the tone may be altered :

Ye aye wo deh\ owurA? What have we done thee^ nmsier?

The vocative assumes the exclamatory particle e (in F. also o) be-
hind, when a person is called at a distance; e. g. Kwasi-e!

This (full) e has middle tone ; it may cause the low tone of the
preceding syllable to become high, and may even produce a change
of that vowel itself; e. g. awe-e! from awe, friend.

The vowels a and o are sometimes elided ; e. g.

Adwo'e! Afor'e! fr. Adwoa, A'foro (female proper names).

3. A noun in the possessive case stands always before another noun
which may be in the nominative or objective or locative or likewise
in the possessive case ; yet not the former, but that other noun, under-
goes changes under certain conditions, stated in § 49.

4. A noun in the objective case follows its governing verb and may
be changed in this connection, as will be stated in § 49. When the
dative and accusative cases are governed by one verb, the dative case
precedes the accusative and is liable to the changes alluded to.

5. A noun in the locative case is connected with, and may be chan-
ged by, the verb, like a noun in the objective case.

Remark. A connection of two words in equal case, called apposition,
may produce similar changes in the prefix and tone of the second
word, as in the position after a possessive case. (Cf. § 190. 191.)

Independent and Connected Form of Nouns.

^T. 1. The independent form of a noun is that form and tone
which it has when pronounced by itself alone, or as the first word
of a sentence.

2. The connected form of a noun is that which, under certain con-
ditions (§ 49), it assumes

a. after a noun or pronoun in the possessive case;

b. in apposition, i. e. after a noun or pronoun to which the connected
noun forms an apposition ;

c. in the position of an object or a locative complement immediately
after the governing verb.

3. The changes^ which a noun may undergo in the connected form,

concern the prefix and its tone, and the tone of the stem.

Bern. When a noun is connected with a preceding word in any of
those three positions without such changes, we do not call its form
connected, but say, the connected noun has retained its independent
form.

38 ETYMOLOGY. § 48. 49.

48. In the independent form of nouns we observe these three points:

1. the noun either has a prefix^ or it has none;

2. the tone of the prefix is low, with few exceptions (§40, 2.4.);

3. the tone of the stem or of its first syllable or syllables is

a. low (perhaps followed by high or by high and low tones);

b. high (perhaps followed by middle or low or low and high tones).

Cf. § 40.

40« In the connected form the following changes occur;

1. The prefixes e, e, o, o, are usually dropped^ except the preceding
vowel be open (a e o) ; after full e, o, the prefix o may be retained.

2. The prefix of the connected word, o (after a, e, g), or a, m, am,
joins the preceding word in equal tone ; when, therefore, the preceding
word ends in low tone, no change takes place; but when it ends in
high tone, the tone of the prefix becomes high likewise.

3. The tone of the stem of the connected word does not change when
the preceding word ends in low tone; but when the preceding word
(for which, in the following examples, we substitute the pronoun ne)
ends in high tone-, we have the following five cases:

a. the loto tone of the stem remains low: ^bogye — n'dbigye.
5. „ „ „ „ „ „ becomes high: oyohko — nh ygnko.

c. the high tone of the stem becomes low: ena — ne nil.

d. „„„„„„ „ middle: oh^ne — ne hene.

remains high after nouns and pronouns,

I

becomes middle after verbs:

obd — ne bd; oh^neba; onni bd.

The first case (a.) is the most usual with low tone. •

The 2d case {b.) comprehends a small number of words, the first
syllable of which has low tone, partly with stress, in the independent
form, viz. oy6nk6, ohondm, bdsd, bakgn, batw^w, mmati &c.
onammoh, nantfh, nantii &c. oydfunu. In kokiirobeti the
first syllable becomes likewise high: ne kokiirobeti.

The 3d case (c.) comprehends a small number of words, viz.
agya, ena, ese, ano, akyi, emu, eso, eto, n86no, niifu, osoro.
The words os^kdn, siinsum, are changed into s^kaiV, sunsum'-

The 4th case (d.) prevails in the Akuapem dialect Over the 5th.

The 5th case (e.) may be the prevailing rule in the Akem dialect,
but comprehends only a limited number of nouns in the Akp. dialo
viz. gba, eti, ani, aso, ek6h, ydm\ asen, nsa, enan, nky^^t
eho, ase, nka, ene, edih, su, ban, gyere, efw^ne, mfinimfinfc
and compounds of them, as: gbdbea, atifi, atiko, dniwa, aniaset
knigye, uanase, ndhkroma, ndnsin, uansoa &c.

§ 50-53. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 39

50« When the possessive case, prieceding the connected noun, is
that of a personal pronoun.^ this pronoun has high tone (m e, wo, n ^,
yen', mo, won') and produces in the connected word the changes
mentioned in § 49, 1. 2. 3. a. c. rf.; but in the cases 3, h, e. the pronoun,
giving up its own high tone, assumes low tone.

Other changes of the original (one of nouns,
SI* The high tone of nouns often becomes low

1 . by the connection with certain succeeding adjectives, chiefly such
as have constant high tone; in some cases, especially when elision
and assimilation of letters takes place, the two words are written to-
gether as one compound word.

ohene — ohene md, ohempd, ohemmbn^, ohenkes^;
nsu — nsu kr6nkron, nsu pd, nsuohyew, nsuonwfni.

2. in derivatives formed by diminutive or personal suffixes :

ohene — ohenewd; sikd — osikani; otiio — otuf6.

Exceptions: asuwa, a brook; aberantewA, abarimdwa, §41,1.
and many nouns ending in ni and fo with middle tone. §38.

Nouns formed by the palatal suffix have usually low tone through-
out, except the final sound, which is high and has the accent (or stress)
before it. See § 36. 40, 4.

3. in composition (cf. §194):

ohene — ahemfi, ahenndn, ahenne(e), ahenni, ahens^m ;
nsu — sukd, osuk6m, sukrdmau, nsukuruwd.

2. PRONOUNS.

5!3« A pronoun is a word which supplies the place of a noun.

As we have hitherto spoken only of substantive nouns, we now speak of
substantive pronouns, reserving the adjective pronouns to be mentioned
with the adjectives.

We divide the pronouns into personal, interrogative, demonstrative,
indefinite and relative pronouns.

J. PEBSONAL PRONOUNS,

a. Independent nominative forms,

33. The personal pronouns, including one impersonal that is put
for things, are in the nominative case as follows:
Singular Plural

1st person: me, I 1. p. yen, we

2d „ wo, thou 2. p. m o, you

3d „ ono, he, she 3. p. won, they (only for persons)

eno, ?<; eno, enonom, they (for things).

40 ETYMOLOGY. § 54^56.

Bern. When gno or eno follows after the verb ne (§102, 1) as a
nominative complement, it does not only loose its prefix (as in the
objective case §56), but is even reduced to a mere final n, viz. nen=ne
no. § 199,1. — Ono nko, he alone, may be shortened into ne hko.

6. Prefixed nominative forms.

54:« When prefixed to the verb (§ 89), the nominative case appears

in the following shortened forms:

before a (a) e o e o in the verb : m e- w o- o- e- y e- m o- w g-
before gya, nya, twa, e, o, i, u: mi- wu- o- e- ye- mu- wo-
together with the prefix a-: ma- wo a- wa-a- yea- mo a- wga-

Rem. 1. In wo a- yea- mo a- wga- the vowel before a- is almost
lost in pronunciation, and the prefix e- is entirely lost with a-.

2. The prefix e- serves not only to indicate things, but is also some-
times used instead of the personal pronoun wg-, e. g.

Mpanyimfo na ebuu be, the elders made a proverb.

e. Possessive forms.
55. In th^ possessive case (§ 45, 3) gno, eno are changed into ne:

1. p. me, my y§n> our

2. p. wo, thy mo, your

3. p. ne, his, her, its, won, their (of persons).

their (of things);
With de after them (§ 62) = mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

Rem. 1. Before i, u &c. they are pronounced mi, wu, ni, yen, mu,
won, but only yen and won are written so.

2. Before the prefix a- the vowels in me, (wo), ne, are lost, and
we write: m' (w'), n'; e. g. m'ani, my eye; n'ano, his mouth.

3. After the verb we write: no s6, no mu, no h6=ne so, ne mu, neho.

4. On the tone of these pronouns in the possessive case, see § 50.

d. Objective forms.
SO. In the objective case (§ 45, 4) the prefix of gno, eno, is dropped.

1. p. me, me y§^, us

2. p. wo, thee mo, you

3. p. no, him, her, (it), wgn, them (of persons).

{them, of things);

Rem. 1. When referring to a thing which is easily understood from
the context, the pronoun no is usually omitted. § 202,4.

Wabisa no, he has asked him (her). Ye no yiy^! make it well!
Akutii no w6 h^? Kwksi afa de imk Kofi, na Kofi adi,

where is that orange ? Kw. has taken (it) and given to Kofi, and

K. has eaten (it).

Rem. 2. In quick speaking me, wo, no, mo, occasionally drop
their vowel, or no is shortened into ne.

Wddim'ase, he has thanked me. Monye n' 'iy^, do it tvell!
Mlyi w' ay^, I praise thee. M^nyamM / shall get youl
Neh6 ay 6 ne den, he has recovered.
Neh6 ny^ n^ den, he is unwell.

§ 57-59.

THE PARTS OF SPEBCII.

41

ST. When the pronouns in the objective case arc reflexive^ they
are compounded with the noun h6=self:

m e h 5, w o h 6, n e h 6, j e n h 6, m o h o, w o n h 6, myself ((c,
Odo neho, Jie loves himself; ye do yen ho, wc love ourselves.

When the action expressed by the verb is reciprocal^ either tliis

compound form of the objective pronoun, or only the last part of it,

or the verb, is doubled:

Wodg •wgnh6-wohh6, or wodo wgnho-ho, or wododo wgnh6,
tJiey love each other.

58. A comparative view of the personal pronouns:

a. Indepen-
dent forms:

b. Prefix
forms :

tvith a-

1 c. Possessi
1 forms:

ve

Objective
forms:

1.

me

me-, mi-,

ma-

me, me.

m»

me, m', meho

2.

wo

W0-, WU-,

woa-

wo, wo,

w'

wo, w\ wo ho

o
0.

ono

Q-, 0-,

wa-

ne, ne,

n'

no, n', neho

eno

e-, e-.

a-

ne, n6,

n'

(no, n') neho

1.
2.

yen

mo, (hom)

ye-, ye-,

mo-, mu-.

yea-
moa-

yen, y ^h
', mo, mo

yen, yenho
mo, m\ moho

3.

won, (yen)
enonom

W0-, W0-,

e-, e-

woa-
a-

won , won
ne, n^,

n'

won, wo 11 ho.

Bern, 1. In the Fante dialect of Cape Coast

we

have them thus:

1.

erne

me, mi, m'

' me

me,m\meh6

2.
3.
1.
2.

ewo

ono
• ehyen(nom)
, ehom(noin)

e, e, ewo

nye
• (e)h m

(a)

wo
ne

nyere
hom

wo, woho
no, neh6(noh6)
hyen, nyereho
hom, homho

3.

1 ewon(noiii)

wo

wore

won, wore ho.

ThQ 3rd pers. sing, does not distinguish persons and things (cf. §89,7),
and the prefix e- before tlie verb is used for the J2d j^crs. sing, instead
of W0-. The full forms of the plural may be added before the prefixed
and possessive forms. The J2d and 3d pers. plur. (hom and h w o n) seem
to be sometimes nearly equal in sound.

Bern. 2. In the Ahem and Asanie dialects the pronouns of the sin-
gular number are as in § 53 — 57. The 2. pers. plur. is hom and mo ;
the 1. and 3. pers. plur. are alike: yene, ye-, yere, yen.

This latter circumstance is very inconvenient, but is explained thus:
the original form of the 3. pers. plur. is ben (still found in the dialect
of Aburi, a town of Akuapem); it was changed into wen, and now
either the vowel was made labial^ to suit the labial consonant: won,
in Fante and Akuapem; or, the consonant was palatalized^ to suit the
palatal vowel: wen (which is retained in Okwawu), and then passed
over into merely palatal y: yen, in Akyem and Asante.

50« The personal pronouns are made emphatic by adding or suf-
fixing the particles ara or an k as a, or both together.

42 ETYMOLOGY. § 60.

m6ara, m^nkdsa, meara ankasa, even 7, I myself;
woara, wo^hkdsa, wo^nkasa ara, thOu thyself I
onoara, onoankasa, n^hkdsa, lie himself she herself',
en oar a, even that, just that, the same,
y^hara, yen^hkdsa, we ourselves'^
moara, moafikdsa^ you yourselves ;
wonara, won^nkdsa, they themselves.
(In Fante: emeara, m'ara; ewoara, w'ara; noara, n'ara;

(§)liy?'^ ara; (e)honiara; wonara; ankasa may be added.)
These com])ound forms may be placed before the prefixed or pos-
sessive or objective forms:

m^ara maf^, I myself have taken (it);

woara woak^, thou thyself hast said (it)\

meara me d4n, my own house '^ n^nkdsa nefi, his otvn home;

masopa m^nkdsa meh6, I have disgraced my own self;

wododo w6nara wgnho, they love (only) their own selves.

IL INTEBBOGATIVE, DEMON STB ATI VE and INDEFINITE

PBONOUNS.

OO. The following (substantive) pronouns denote
1. persons, 2. things, 3. places, 4. times,
5. manner and quantity (including measure, weight, number) :

1. eh^na (hOna, Ak. hwana, nhwae, F. wana), who?
pi. eh^nanom, ehefo? ivho?

oyi, this one, pi. eyinom, these men or persons;

oyiara, this very person.
obi, some one, another \ ebinom, some or other people',

obiara, any one, any body.
6nik6, oyllk6 (pi. yanom), the (single) person concerned (used chiefly

in indirect questions; cf. § 74, 1).
n6a (=ono a, Ak. dea, he who) is a subst. pron. compounded with

the relative particle 'a'. § 65.

2. den' (Ak. dee ben, deen, sen)? ivhat (what thing)?
dekode, what, which thing (in indirect questions),
eyi, adi (rrrade yi), this fhing; eyinom, these things.
ebi, biribi, some (of it), something.

ebiara, biribiara, anything;
fw6, fwefwe (Ak. fwete), anything, with negative verbs: nothings

e. g. fwe nnim' kora, fwefwe nnim\ ebiara nnim' fwered^,
there is nothing in it at all.
nea (Ak. dea, =ade a), that which. § 65.

3. ehe (Ak. eh one)? where (= which place)?

eh a, ehdyi, ehdara, ehanom (Ak. n^ha), here, just here, hereabout;
eho, ehono, ehoara, eh6nom (Ak. doha), there, jmt there, thereabotU.
(Sometimes eho denotes time: ehgno, ehgbere no, at that time.)
n6a (Ak. dea), the place where. § 65.
Cf. babi (Ak. beabi), somewhere; pi. mmedmmed, in different places^

mma nnytna (nhina), in all places, everywhere. § 125, 1.
'Tko, which place (in indirect questions); the place concerned. § 125, 2.

§61-63. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 43

4. dAben (Ak. dabene)? when? lit. tvhat day?
ene, nne (a contraction of edd yi, this dat/)^ to-day.

dibi, someday; di, -vfith negative verbs: never \ d^bi = no, § 146, 3.
da, da da, dapem, dflyi, F. daba, often^ always,

5. den (Ak. sen)? how? in what manner or qualify?

ahe (Ak. sen)? how much? how many? what quantity^ price^ number?
sa, sa', se' (=8 a yi, se eyi), in this manner^ quality or quantity^
so^ siichf thus.

01« Most of these pronouns (§ 60) may be used in the nominative ^),
or possessive^), or objective^), or locative*) case, and are, concerning
their independent and connected form, treated like nouns.

1. Ehena n^ 6 wo ho? who is there?

Momu heua n^ onim? which of you knows (it)?

Ne d^n nk ay^ra? (lit. his what i. e.) what or which of his things

is lost? Ne blribiara nyerde e, (lit. his anything was not lust

yet., i. e.) nothing of his things is lost.

Woh6 y^wo ydw'? (thy where makes thee pain) where do you

feel pain? MehdyemeyAw se, (lit.) my here pains me very much.

Ne sd nye! (lit. 2^5 so is not good i. e.) it is not good so.

2. Eh^na tdm ni (=ne yi)? whose cloth is this?
Eye oyi d^a, it is this one^s (thing, § 62).

D^n as^m ni? (lit. what-things matter i. e.) what matter is this?
Ah6 aburow ni? how-much (money's) i. Q.for how much (money)

corn is this?
Sa' onipa yi, (lit. such- quality's man this i. e.) such a man.

3. Wodk6fr^ hena? whom did you (go to) call?
Mafr^ eyinora, / have called these (people).

4. Wa gy^> me ho slkd, he has taken money from me (lit. my there).

OS. The indefinite pronoun de (Ak. dee, = ade, adee, thing) is put
after a possessive case instead of a noun mentioned before, to avoid
its repetition, or with a general (indefinite) meaning.

Ehd (Abibirim ha) nkokg ns6 se Abrokyfri d6, the fowls
here (in Negro-land) are not so large as those of Europe.

Ohene no nsrSf6 ny^ nndm se oyi d(^, that king^s soldiers are
not so brave as this one's (thing =soldiers).

M^hu m^d^ an 5, I shall see my things' cnd^ i. e. I shall see how
to arrange or settle my matters.

Eye me d^, wo d6, ne d^, yen d(5, &c. it is mine, thine Sc. § 55.

Sometimes the emphatic particle *a' (§ 75, 2) is added to de:
Otdm yi ye med6^! this cloth is mine, lit. my thing (indeed)!
(Ak. Otdm yi wome, this cloth [sticks, i. e.] belongs to me.)

Rem. The indefinite pronoun de, compounded with the relative par-
ticle *a', without reference to a noun mentioned before, see Jj 65.

63* The plural pronoun nom is added to names of persons, in
Ofdcr to mark in an indeiinito way the followers and companions of
that person, himself included.

44 ETYMOLOGY. § 64.

Paulo nom tu fii Pafo, Paul and his compani/ loosed from Paphos.

Acts 13, 13,

This nom is also used in apposition or as a suffix with nouns and
pronouns to provide for, or strengthen, their plural form ; see § 42, 5. and
enonom, ehomnom, eheuanom, eyinom, ebinom, yanom, eha-
nom, ehonom, § 53. 58 Rem, 1. 60, 1. 3. and yinom, binom, §74.

III. Pronouns in connection with the relative paHicle *a\

(Relative Pronouns.)

04« The relative pronouns of the English and kindred languages
are expressed in Tshi by the invariable particle 'a' (equal to the un-
inflected Hebrew relative "^2^^) and a subsequent pronoun, which, how"
ever, in some cases is wanting.

1. The particle 'a' is called relative (=:referring), because it refers
to some previous word, a noun or pronoun, termed the antecedent',
but it points also forward, and connects with the antecedent a sub-
ordinate adjective sentence (§ 257), in which a pronoun in the nomi-
native^), or possessive^ or ohjective^)^ or locative*) case, answering to
the antecedent, is contained, or at least understood, viz. when it refers
to a tiling^) — not a person, — or sometimes also to a place^).

2. The antecedent may have a distinguishing adjective, yi, no, bi
and ko (§74) before the relative particle, or yi, no, bi, at the end
of the adjective sentence, or even in both places.

Rem. The case of the correspondent pronoun is independent from
that of the antecedent.

l.Obi k 6ko asii ni! tliere is one that goes for water.
Abofrd k greko asii yi(ara) ab6 ahind 'ne,

this (very) hog going for water has broken a pot to-day.
Yedgwgh k w6doyen, we love them that (or those who) love us.

2. Onipa bi w6 h6 k ne nsd awu,

there is (or was) a man whose hand is (or was) withered.
Obariraa k nendn apfra no(ara) asdn aba,

the (same) man, whose foot is wounded, has come again.
M^ k me nti ohijtl amane no, raedo no,

I, for whose sake he suffer ed^ love him,

3. Mihdtl obf k gw6 akdno,

/ saw somebody whom a snake has bitten.
Wahd gb6a (no) k gw6 akd no no,

he has seen the (that) woman whom a snake has bitten.
W6 k gwg akd wo no, wiisuro siinsoii,

thou tvhom a snake has bitten, fearest a sloiv-worm.

4. Ad6 k gmp6 ni, this is a thing (which) he does not like.
Ad(^ k raemp^ no ni, this is the thing (that) I don't like.
Atemmii ko k mode bu no, w6de bebu mh,

with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged. Mat. 7, 2.

§ 65. 66. THE PABTS OF SPEECH. 45

Wakyereme affri k minhdtibi di,

he has shotvn me an engine an equal of which I have never seen,

5. Ocliiu akura a osoee ho kdn no,

he arrived at the village where (in which) he had put up formerly,

6. Yebefi wiase h. y^bae yi akg bio,

we shall leave this world,, into which we came, to go away again,

05« Nea, Ak. dea, is an indefinite or demonstrative substantive
pronoun, denoting a person or thing or place or manner, with wLicli
the relative jyariicle *a' is compounded, pointing forward to a sentence
by which the person, thing, place or manner is defined. Serving in-
stead of ono a, ade a, babi a, it combines the antecedent and the
connective power of the relative pronouns and adverbs of European
languages, answering to: he tvho, she who, he that, what (=that which),
(the place) tvhere, the manner (extent drc) in which; but in the words
following after it, a correspondent pronoun must be used or understood,
to make up the sense conveyed by the said relatives in English.

l.Nea 6k^asu na ohb ahind, he who goes for water breaks the pot,

2. Dea ^mma^ da sua, what has never yet come to pass is not much,

3. Nea khk p^n nk esdh b^, what has happened once, happens again,
4.Nea owo akdno suro sunson,

he whom a snake has bitten fears a slow-worm,
5. Nea okgm ^y q ne m'e, what hunger desires is satiating,

6. Nea n'aniakyew na ofw6 to4m\

he whose eye is squint, looks into the calabash,

7. Nea owuf no ba ni, this is the son of him who died,

8. Kyerew nea w6ye^ no h5 as^m, write the story of what they did,

9. Nea onnd n^ onim n^a 6nnd,

he who does not sleep knows him who does not sleep,

10. Fwe nea woy6! look what they do!

11. Obi nko nea wobekum' no, nobody goes where they will kill him,

12. Nea wonom (ho), wonnuar^ ho, where they drink, there they

don't wash, i.e. a place of drinking (water) is not used for washing.

The antecedent pronoun contained in nea stands in the nomma//{;e
in the sentences 1 , 6, 9a, — in the possessive case, in 7, 8, — in the
objective case, in 9b, 10, — in the locative case, in 11, — in the loca-
tive case put absolutely (like a nominative) at the head of the sentence,
in 12. The corresponding pronoun in the adjective sentence is in the
nominative in 1,2,3,7,9, — in the possessive, in 6, — in the objec-
tive, in 4, 5, 8, 10, — in the locative, in 11, 12; it is not expressed,
but left to be supplied in 3, 5, 8, 10, 1 1 , (1 2).

3. ADJECTIVES.

00« An adjective is a word added to a noun, in order to mark
or distinguish it more accurately. We speak of
/. adjective nouns, II. adjective pronouns. III, distinguishing particles.

46 ETYMOLOGY. § 67-69.

J. ADJECTIVE NOUNS, (Qualifying Adjectives.)
©T. Adjective nouns denote qualitif^ i. e. any distinguishing feature
of a thing; e. g.

onipa pa, a good man'^ odan kese, a large house.
Some denote quantity and indefinite number \ e. g.

k a k r a, liftle, few ; b e b r e, p i, much, many\ n n y i n a (h h i n a), alh
Some of these have adjective pronouns and particles added to them:

kakrabi, kctewabi, kumabi, some few, few only;

pi noara, most, the greater number \ nhina 'ra, all together,

Mem, The word for all, in the F. dial, of D6na (Elmina) hina, is
probably a noun ( =totality) ; we prefer to write h h i n a, instead of
nnyinl; on the mute h, cf. nhoma, nhwi, § 8. 11.

The definite numerals, denoting some exact number, see § 76-84.
68« The adjective of quality (or quantity) is used in two ways:

a. attributively, e. g. adesoa durudiiru, a heavy load ;

b. predicatively, e. g. adesoa no y^ duru, thai load is heavy.
When predicative, the adjective is subjoined to a verb of existence, as:

ye, to be, dan, to become, nyin, to grow.

Bem. Many adjective nouns are also used as substantive nouns and
as adverbs. § 70, 4. 5. 71. 133.

60« Concerning their structure, adjectives are

1. Primitives:

a. Some have the form of simple or seemingly compound verbal stems :

d e. sweet ; f e, fine ; d e n, hard ; d u r u, heavy ; f u a, single ; k e s e, great.

b. Some have their last sound lengthened:

nya, slow; pi, much', sa\ tough; te\ straight', k6mm, quiet;
lianh, light, bright; fokye, wet, moist; kahwe, fresh.

2. Derivatives:

a. Many different forms are obtained by simple or double reduplica-
tion of primitive stems, by reiteration and repetition:

dodo, numerous; f6fg, fat; gyewgy^w, rude, rough;
nyiny any inya, sour; kr^nanana, silent.

b. Some are derived from nouns without any change of form :

n s 0, ash'Coloured ; a k u t u, orange-yellow ; a n k a h 6 n o, lemon-coloured,

c. Some are the repeated plural forms of noilns:

aboabo, stony; apgwapow, knobby; nsoensge, thorny.

d. Some adjectives, formed from verbs, chiefly by the palatal suffix,
are almost exclusively compounded with their nouns:

nam prow 6, rotten meat; nan ho we, dried meat;
okwanfuwi, an overgrown way; duwui, § 39, 1.
senkyehfe'=as^m k |kyeh so, an atrocity,
adesoaky^nfe', an excessive burden,
ab u r 6 w gu ii n u a n e', guni'iuah', guanuuan', dry corn, ripe mai^e]

§70-72. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 47

c. In ^hb6inaguan, a dry skin, we have an other adjectival
derivation from the verb gu^n, red. gunnuan, to wither,

3. Compounds:

These are few in number, and their component parts can often not
be plainly reduced to other existing words,
kokodoma, red : kontonky6, crooked; aboAkyiab^nkyi, uneven.

TO. Some adjectives are used in only one form ;
either simple^ as: bon^, bad] bun, unripe \ hunu, empty -^ § 69, 1 b.
or reduplicated and compound. § 69, 2. 3.

The adj. pou, large, great, is only used in compounds. § 39, 1.

Others have two or more forms, making different use of them;

f^ (few), fef^, fef^fefe, fefefe, fine, handsome; p4, papa, good;
kokuro, koktirok6, large: kr^na, krdnanana, silent.

We distinguish;

1. an attributive form^ frequently reduplicated, after a noun:

mfonini f^f^, a fi>ne picture; oh 6 d^nnen, a hard stone \
atade foforo, a new garment ; ode momon6, raw yam.

2. an attributive form, usually simple, compounded with a noun:

agorufew, a fine play; nkoden, a hard fighting;
ode-am6no, unboiled yam; andmmono, raw meat;
ohemforo, ghemf6f6ro, a new kiyig; ayef6ro, a bride.

3. a predicative form, simple or reduplicated :

du:l yi y^ fe, this tree is fine; dad6 y6 den, iron is hard;.
ode no yb momono, that yam is unboiled;
atade no y6 foforo, t?iat garment is new.

4. an adverbial form, frequently reduplicated, sometimes twice, and
often with contraction of the middle members:

wogoru fef^fe (fef^(f)efe), they play very nicely;
ghyeno denne(nn)enneh, he forces him very hard.

5. a substantive form:

n6 f^w, its beauty \ neh6 f^, his handsomeness;

n6 den, his hardness; ne foforo k ^ye, its newness',

p d p a, goodness ; kes^, kokuroko, greatness, largeness.

Tl. Besides the nouns of quality (§ 68 Rem. 70, 5), nouns for persons
are derived from adjectives by the prefixes o- or a- :

gbon^, a wicked man; gf6f6ro, another (a neiv) person;
ofufu, gkgkg, gkes6, gtenten, a white, red, stout, tall person'^
aketewa, aktima, akwada, atia' (akwatid), a little man.

TS. Some adjectives have a plural form, simple or repeated :

kese, large,/p\. akese; abo akeseak^s^, large stq^ies]
ketewa, small, pi. nketewa; mmoa hketehketewd;
ak&ma, little^ pi. hkuma; mmofrd nktlmankdma.

48 ETYMOLOGY. § 73. 74.

TS. 1. The notion of more and most in some qualities is, after pre-
dicative adjectives, expressed by the verbs kyen and sen, to surpass:

Dade y^ den sen kgbere, iron is hard surpasses copper,
Ne h6 y^ f^ ky^h n^ nud, she is handsomer than her sister.
Meddh n^ wod^ s5; na ned^ (so or ye kokiiro) sen n6
nhl^nd (sen n'abieii nhina, or, sen ad an nhina), my house
and thine are large ; hut his is the largest (the largest of the three,
or, the largest of all houses).

2. The quality may also be expressed by a noun put after a verb

of comparison in an adverbial way.

Sikd kyeh hkrdnt^ nn^m, gold surpasses a sword (in) sharpness,

i. e. gold is sharper (effects more) than a sword.
Biribi n'kyen ogyd koko, anything not excells fire (in) redness,

i. e. nothing is redder than fire.

3. When a high degree of some quality is to be expressed without

comparing another object, it is done by reduplication, or by adverbs;

Mddi adud bi, d^d^dede, I have eaten a fruit, exceedingly sweet.
Aduan' no y^ de se, that food is very palatable.
Dud k^se pa, dud kokiiro se, a very large tree.
Eye deii dodo, it is very hard, or too hard,

4. The notion of most is also expressed

a. by noara added to attributive adjectives of quantity:

Nnipa pi n6ara ab^ ofie, most of the people have come home,
Mmofrd dodow noara k^ akyiri, most children remain behind.

b. by a. predicative adjective, especially after the verb ne, referring

to other objects of comparison with the postposition mu (==among).

Eye abd hhina mu k^tevva, it is the least of all seeds.
E'ne kes^ wg fdn nhtnd mu, it is the greatest among herbs.
Eny4 wone aktimawo n' as k f oh en e mu, thou art ftBt the least
among his captains. (Cf. Mat. 13, 32. 2, 6.)

c. by the verb ne and a predicative adjective or noun (generally pre-
ceding the verb), without mentioning other objects for comparison.

Okese no ne wo, thou art the greatest. Cf. § 1 99, 1 .
AkQma ne me wo m'agyd off, lam the least in my father's
home. {Jud. 6, 15.)

5. The notion of comparative smallness, without mentioning another

object of comparison, is expressed in some adjectives of quantity by

the diminutive termination, with the addition of bi or se:

Mddi n^m ketewa s^, I have eaten very little meat.
WdmlLme kakrd bi, he has given me very little.

II. ADJECTIVE PBONOUNS. (Distinguishing Adjectives.)

•74. Adjective pronouns denote distinction, by pointing out some
particular thing or things of a class.

§ 75. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 49

They are interrogative^), or demonstrative^), or indefinite^ and are
used either simple, or compounded with the particle ara, which in-
creases the particularizing power of the former *) ^) and the gene-
ralizing power of the last ^).

1. ben? ivhich? tvJtat? used in direct questions;

ko (=one), which, what, in indirect questions, points out the single
(respective) person or thing in question.

2. yi, pi. y i, yinom, this, these, point out something present or near;
no, thai, ihosCf thCi points out something in a distance, or something

mentioned and known already; in many cases it answers to the
definite article in English. — (nom, plural pronoun, see in § G3.)

3. hi, pi. bi, binom, a, a ccHain, another, some] biara, any.

1. AbofrA ben na wasoraa no? which hot/ has he sent?
Minnim abofrd ko, / do not know (the single boy) which.
Wdto ntamJi ben? ivhich (or what) cloth has he bought?
Wankyer^me ntamak6 k watg, he did not shotv me which

(or what kind of) cloth he has bought.
Onipa kese b6h ni! what a great man is this !
O'di dwiima behara? ivhat kind of occupation has he?
Bisano dfiko a 6beba, ask him which day he will come.

2. Abofrd yi yi\re da, this child is always sick.

Odan yiara wono (ye nedea), Just this house is his.
Ob6a no ba no wo h6? where is the child of that woman ?
Abofrd noara ni! this is just that boy (that very or the same boy).
). Ob of 6 bi aba, a (certain) messenger has come.

Wodtii abofo bi, they have dispatched some messengers.
Waiiki no asem biara, he did not tell him anything.

III. Distinguishing Particles.

T5« 1. The relative particle *a\ which also serves for distinction
)y pointing out an individual from a class, see in § 64.

2. The same particle *a\ when not followed by a sentence belong-
ng to it, is no more called relative, but emphatic.

OtAm yi ye wo d^^, this cloth is thine!
Eye me bd ntkdi hi it is my son's coat! Gen. 37, 33.
Onye wo kunu ^! he is not thy husband. John 4, 18.
Wo k\ w6yc abofrd! as for you, you are a boy!

3. Emphatic particles, commonly classed with the adverbs, are often
bund added to a noun or pronoun, to render the distinction of the
espective person or thing from others more prominent :

Ira, ankasa, even, 5cZ/'(cf. § 59. 74) ; nko, hkuto, nkuto-kore, aZowe;
le, taken apart, concerning, as for \ \

nmom', rather, especially \ p6, mpo, even'^ nso, also\

3 h e n e ankasa, the king himself. O n 6 nko, n e n k 6, he alone ;
ivo nkiito, thou alone. M^ d6, m^kg, as for me, I shall go.
3panyin mmora' nti ^seno, for an elder especially it is fit
Jhcne po, even the king; okyeilme nso, the linguist also.

4

50 ETYMOLOGY. § 76-

NUMEEALS.

•yO. Numerals denote the number of things.

1. The. in def in lie numerals, which do not denote any exact numl
are classed among the adjectives, see § 67. 73, 4. 5. 74, 3.
nnipa pi, many men\ nnipa hhtna, all men; nnfpa bi, some me)

2. The definite numerals, denoting spme exact number (e. g. nni
dii, ten men), are treated of in this place. They are always used af
or compounded with nouns, but may be considered rather as ahsti
nouns (of number), which have a noun before them in the possess
case (or, which are in apposition to that noun), than as adjectivei

Concerning their form, we distinguish primary and compound nui

rals ; concerning their use, we speak of cardinal numerals (§ 77-1

and of iterative and multiplicative (81), distributive (82), ordinal (

and fractional (84) numerals.

Whilst in Kngrlish &c. the fuim of the cardinaU is changed for \\\e. ordinaU \
we have in Tshi not to state a difference o^ form, but only a diff'erence of i

CAEDINAL NUMEBALS.

Primary Numerals,

'77'. The twelve primary numerals, from which all the rest

formed by composition, are the following:

eko, ekoro, one andn, nnan, four ason, nson, seven
enu, nnu, two aniim, nnum, five awotwe, liwotwe, ci

esil, nsa, three asiji, nsia, six akron, nkron, nine

edii, ten\ 6 ha, hundred; ap^m, thousand.

The three first of these numerals are used in their simple form

counting and in composition with some nouns (§ 80); in other cas

forms compounded with b i, denoting any individual of a kind, are use

biak6, Aky. biekd, Akp. bako, one;

abien' (=abienu), Ak. mmienii, tivo\

abies^, Ak. mmiens^, ^Ar^e.

nko, alone, only, is an adjective (§ 75) and an adverb;

k6ro stands also as an adjective, for single. Only.

Compound Numerals,

T8. Real compounds, «n which two or three primary numerals a
made ,up into one word, are the following:

I. The numerals from eleven to nineteen are formed by composition
e d u with the units, the latter, except b i a k o, having the nasal prefix
and the tone of the connected form :

II. ediib\ak6, diib^ko, 14. ediinndn 17. edunsoii

12. eddroien, dumienu, 15. edunniim 18. cdiinwbtw

13. ediimiensll, 16. edunstd 19. eduiikr6n.

^78. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 51

2. The tens from twenty to ninety are formed by composition of adu,
plural of edu, with the units, the latter having the vowel prefixes,
with some euphonic changes, and the tone as in composition:

aduonu, twenty &du&n &h, forty aduos6n, seventy

a d u a s a, thirty a d u o n li m, fifty aduQwotwe, eighty

lh?oSgru.:wS^n8faD<iiSKa.o"„l a d u o sf a, si^rfy a d u a k r 6 h, ninety.

3. The hundreds are formed by composition of aha, plural of oha
with the units, having the nasal prefix, except ahas^ (ahaasft):

ahannu, two hundred ahdnstd, six hundred

a h a s a, three hundred a h d n s 6 n, seven hundred

ahdnndn, four hundred ahanwotwe, eight hundred

ahdnniim, five hundred ahdnkron, nine hundred,

Ohserv, The words ahanu, ahas^, when unconnected, have low
tone throughout.

4. The thousands, by composition of mpem, plural of apem, with

the units, having the nasal prefix and the tone of the connected form:

m p e n n u, two thousand rapemnslA, six thousand

mp^nsa, three thousand mpemns6n, seven thousand

mpemndh, four thousand mpemiiwotw^, eight thousand

mpemniim, five thou^sand mpemhkrou, nine thousand.

5. By composition of apem in the shortened form ope- with edu,
oha, apem, are formed:

gp6du, ten thousand, ope ha, hundred thousand^ opep^m, a million;
and the ten-thousands^ hundred-thousands and millions, by composition
of gpedu, op eh a, g pep em, with the units, in the same form and
tone as the tens, hundreds and thousands. But cf. § 79, 2.

gpeduonu, twenty thousand gpeduosia, sixty thousand

5peduasa, thirty thousand gpedugsoh, seventy thousand

gpeduandn, forty thousand gpedugwotwe, eighty thousand

gpeduoniim, fifty thousand gpeduakr6h, ninety thousand.

opehanu, gpehasa, gpehanndn&c.
gpep^nnu, gpep^nsa, gpep^mndn &c.

So we may also form:

gpepedu, ten millions] gpepeha, hundred millions',

gpepep6m, thousand millions y a milliard ; gpepepepem, a billion.

But we may also say:

mpem du, mpem aduonu, mpem ha, mpem ahannu...

mpepem du, mpepem ha... Cf. §79, 2.

6. For indefinite numbers of thousands and millions, we have the

following expressions:

mpem-mpem, thousands', mpem ahorow mpem, thousands of
thousands-, gpehuhdk, mpem mpem huhst, gpepehft, gpepetg,
many thousands, hundred-thousands, millions.

S2 ETYMOLOGY. § 79. 80. ;

79. All the remaining numerals are not expressed by perfect com-
pounds (§30, 1.2.), but by combination of the higher numeral with
the lower, the former always preceding the latter; the units are joined
to the tens, and the tens to the hundreds, by a hyphen and by the
tone of connection (in aduonu, aduasfi, ahanu, ahasa the last
syllable is then likewise high); e. g a duon u-bia k6, twenty one,
aduanAn-abiefi', forty two, aduakr 6n-abiesd, ninety three,
ahas^-aduosia-aniim, three hundred and sixty five,

2. When the thousands, ten-thousands, hundred-thousands &c. are

not given in single round numbers, as above (§ 78, 4. 5), the plural

forms mpem, mpepem &c. are used; e.g.

m p e m d u n s 6 n, 17000 ; mpem a h an n u - a d u a n A n - a n li m, J245000]
mpepem kdmxsisikYoh, 39000000] mpepem ahannah-aduosia, 46W^0^t)^.

3. Between the thousands and the lower numerals, and between the

hundreds and units, when there are no tens, the conjunction nh may

be used: e. g. mp^m dunnum ne ahannu nh as6n, 15J207.

Cf. Twi Kenkah NhOma, Primer for the Vernacular Schools in
Ahuapem, Akem dtc. pag. 84. 85.

Nouns compounded ivith Numerals.

H€^m 1 . When the numerals from one to ten refer to persons, they
may be compounded with ba = gba, person, but the *a\ coalescing
with the prefix of the simple numeral, is long:

bako, b^nu, b^sa, bandn, basfa, bason, b a wot we, bakron.

These compound forms are put in apposition after names of per-
sons or pronouns, and are also used as complements of verbs: I

Nnipa b^sa, three men, as it were: men, a triad of persons. I
Won bason hhina awuwu, all the seven have died, \

Ye si bandn, tee are four (persons).
Wo nam banu, they walk two to(f ether.

2. ObakO, obi a k 6, obiakofo, one man, a siwjle person, are used
substantively without another noun.

3. Compound nouns, denoting the place which a person according

to his birth takes among other children, so that the numeral has the

value of an ordinal numeral (§ 83), are the following:

abdkdn, a (irsthorn child; Manu, name of the second child;
ten names mentioned in § 41, 5; Du k6, name of the elevenlfi cJUld,
W^awo abaduasa, she has horn thirty i. e. plenty of children.

4. From odgn, hell, clock, we have the following compounds:

dgiikoro. one o'clork 'nonsoii, seven o'clock

'n g n - a b i e n', two o'clock 'n g n w o t vV e, eiphl o'clock

'ngh-abiesji, 'ngnnaii, 'ngnkron, 'n6fidu,

'nonuum, 'uousiA, 'n6ii-dubak6, 'non-diimieu.

§81. 82. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 53

5. From e d a, day :

d 4 k 6 r o (d a f u a), d ^ b i a k 6, one dxtf, n n a n li, two daifs,
nnansd, iina'ndn, nna'uuin, unansid, nnanson, 3—7 days;
nnaawotvve, 8 days, a week\ nnankroh, dadii, !?, 20 days;
dadu-dabak6, dadu-nntVinien', dad li nna'miensd, li — 13 d,
d a d li - 11 n A'n a n, 14 days, d a d u - n n a' n u m, 15 days, a forbw/hl ;
dadu-nnanstd, dadii-nnansoh, dadii-un ah wot we, 16-18 days;
adaduonu, adaduasa, adaduanah... ^0, 30, 40 days cite,

6. From afe, year:

mfensa^ mfrihy id abiesA, three years.

7. From gfa, side, part:

f^ko, one side, af^nu, af^sa, a fit n An, 2,3^4 sides;
hkrante anofanu, a two-ed^ed sword,

8. From liih, edye, corner:

a h i h a 8 ^, three-cornered, trianyidar ;

all in and h, four-corn'jred, quadr any alar, quadrate, square;

ahihasid, hexagonal, sexanyular ;

ahihwotwe, odayonal, odanyular,

9. From own, death:

awuonu = o wu-perennii, second death;
awuduasa, 30 deaths, all possible kinds of death.

Iterative and Multiplicative Numerals,

81. Definite frequency (in answer to the question ; Jiow many times ?)

is expressed by composition or combination of the definite numerals with

the noun peh(p^reh), a sinyle attempt, stroke or time, pi. mpeh, times:

pen, pehkoro, prek5, once, one time^ at once;

mperennu, mpeh sihiQn, twice; mpfer^nsa, mp^h i\h\ea^^ thrice;

mp^h andh, a num..., four, five ... times,

2, In answer to the questions: how many times? (in multiplication)
and: how manifold? the nouns ah6r6w, kinds, and mmoh6, douhliny,
addition, are used; e. g.

Edu ahorow abieh ye aduonu, 2 times 10 are 20;

Osii me anahmu mmoho anah, ^6 replaced (it) to me fourfold.

Distributive Numerals,

82. The equal distribution of the same number of a thing to se-
veral subjects or objects is expressed by the repetition of the numeral;
in this case b i a k 6 has a plural form. In combinations of higher and
lower numerals, the repetition of the latter is sufficient.

Woh hhluci bisddno mmiak6-mmiak6 se: Bye me and?

they all asked him, one hy one, sayiny: is it I?
Obis dd won mmiak6-mmiak6, he asked them one hy one,
Omdd mmofrd dii no hhl^nd mmdh dii dii,

he gave those ten hoys each of thenn ten strings.
Mdto ddboddbo andh, mmdh aduonii-aniim-anum,

/ have bought four ducks, each for 25 strings.

54 ETYMOLOGY. § 83.

Ordinal Numerals.

83. The ordinal numerals of European languages, denoting the
place which any thing holds in a series, do not exist in Tshi. The i
want is supplied (besides compositions like those mentioned in § 80,
3. [4?] 9.) chiefly by verbal phrases :

di kan, di ho, tia or to so abien, abiesa, anan...

1. The first (person), nea 6di kdn; he or she is the first, odl kdu;
the first (thing), firstly, nea edi kan; it is the first; edi kah.

Explanation, The verb di has many meanings; to move, to ad, to
occupy &c, &c.; its complement kah is a noun, denoting the first or
foremost (or former) place or time in a series of places or events ; it
is also found like an adjective in compounds.

O'di kdn = he occupies the first place; oba kdh, he comes first.
aba kah, a firstborn child, adekah, aduahkah, firstfruits.

2. The second (person), neaodiho;

he or she is the second: 6di h6, lit. he occupies the (next) place there; ■
the second (thing), secondly, nea edi ho; it is the second, edi ho.

3. The 2d, 3rd, 4th <S:c. person:

nea otia or oto s6 abieh. abiesa, anah...,
nea otiawoh or 6to wohso banu, basa, banah;
the 2d, 3rd, 4th.,. (thing), secondly, thirdly, forthly...,
nea etia or etoso abieh, abiesa, anah....

Expl. These phrases may be explained thus:

t i a = to add (in order to fiU up or make up a sum),
to s = to lay (or lie) above or upon ;
etiaanah = eY adds (or is added, and) makes up (the sura of) fourt
otia woh bas6h = i^e augments them {to a) seven of persons;
oto mmofra yi so du^=he lays upon, or adds to, these boys (one
to whom in counting belongs the number) ten.

4. ^He is the last"" is expressed by :

odi akyiri, he occupies the back-part;

oka akyiri, he remains behind;

otwj^ to, he cuts off the hind end;

gkata mpii, he covers the hind part (said of a train of persons)-

5. The interrogative adjective pronoun ivhich (of the number)? tch<^

(number) ? is circumscribed in a similar way :

Woak^h hh6ma anum yi mil nea ^wg hePornea^toso ah 6

tvhich of these five books have you read?
Mdkah nea etia anah, I have read the fourth.

Rem. The ^Mfantsi Grammar' of Carr and Brown gives as ordinal*
beside the cardinal forms, compositions of the cardinals with dze = d *
yet without examples of their actual use. The use of this de is to t>
(explained as in § 62, and confirms the observation that the cardiP^
numerals are nouns, § 76, 2. E. g. If instead of the last example giv*?
in this §, we should say: Makah anah de, it would signify: / /w**^
read that (book) which belongs to (or makes up) the number of /bf^'

§ 84-86. THE PABTS OF SPEECH. 55

Fractional Numbers.

84« The whole of a thing is expressed by emu, plur. amuamu,
which words may be considered as nouns, or, when added to, or com-
pound with, another noun, as adjectives. Sometimes h bin a (nny in a),
ally is added besides.

Oman-mu no hhina behyiae, the whole people assembled.

The half of a thing is expressed by the noun of a, plur. af&af^.

One fourth may be expressed in the following ways:

hkyem' or abup^n a etia or ^ih so anan, tlie fourth part;
nkyem' anAn mu biak6, one amonfj four parts;
h k y e m'- a n a n b i a k 6, one fourth-part

Three fourths:

nkyem^ anah mu abics&, or: nkyem'-anan abiesa.
For tenth=lithe^ tithing^ we use: ntos6 dii, plur. ntotoso dii dii.

5. VERBS.

S5. A verb is a word by which we ascribe doinfj or behiff (action
or state and quality) to a person or thing called the subject.
The action or state expressed by the different verbs may be

1. an action of the subject, concerning an object; e. g.

bo, to strike; di, to eat (&c.y ka, to bite; tow, to throw; hu, to see;
dweii, to think; sow, to bear (fruit); wo, to bear (a child),

2. an action (or motion) confined to the actor:

a. an actitJe state:

su, to weep; nam, nantew, /o walk; g6ru, to plan; g"*'^? l^ fl^^-
[didi, to eat; to no^ to forge, are also used without mentioning an
object, though these actions are not confined to the subject]

b. a change of state:

nyin, to grow; guan, ny^m, to wither; here, to redden, ripen.

3. an inactive state:

a. a temporary ^tate or condition:

da, to lie; gy in a, to stand; home, to rest; yare, to be sick.

b. a lasting quality:

so, to be large; sua, to be small; ware, to be long; here, to be red.

Transitive, Intransitive and Locative Verbs.

SC 1. Verbs requiring an object or two objects are called tran-
sitive] some examples see in § 85, 1.

2. Verbs not requiring an object are called intransitive, § 85, 2 3.

3. Many verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, the
meaning in the two cases usually showing some difference.

56 ETYMOLOGY. § 87-«9,

f

4. The same idea may be expressed in both ways by different verbs,
didi, di aduah', to eat (food); kasd, k^ as6m, to speak (words).

5. Verbs expressing motion to or from a place (direction), or rest in

aplace, and requiring a complement of place, are called locative (§ 208).

fi, to come (forth) from; ko, to go (somewhere);
t e, to sit, live (in a place).

ST. Other kinds of verbs will be spoken of hereafter, viz.
impersonal verbs, § 157, 2 ; auxiliary verbs, § 106 — 111 ;
so also the different objects or complements of verbs, § 200 — 209,
and certain stationary combinations of verbs tvith specific subjects or
objects and other complements, § 210 — 220.

General Structure of the Verb.

88. 1. The verb in its bare form is a primary or secondary or
seemingly compound stem, simple, with 1 to 3 syllables (§ 28, 2. 3.),

or reduplicated, with 2 to 6 syllables (§ 29, 4).

2. By inflexion, various prefixes and a suffix are joined to the stem,

to indicate: a. the subject (person and number), b tense and mood,
c. negation, also d. previous going or coming for the performance of an
action. — A passive voice does not exist in Tshi. It is supplied by the
active verb with suitable subjects, or by intransitive verbs. § 165 Mem.

3. Monosyllabic and disyllabic (the latter with the trisyllabic and
polysyllabic) verbs are different in tone.

INFLEXION OF THE VEEB.

Person and Number. Pronominal Prefixes.

80. 1. Person and number are indicated by the personal pronouns
prefixed to the verb in the forms shown in § 54.

2. In the third person, singular and plural, the pronominal prefix
is omitted, when the subject is expressed by a noun or independent
pronoun. In the imperative form for the 2d pers. sing, the pronoun
is always omitted. Cf. § 245, 2.

3. When of two or more successive verbs the first has a pronomi-
nal prefix, it is not repeated with the following verbs, excepting that
of the 1st pers. sing.

4. The tone of the pronominal prefix varies in the different tenses
and other forms of the verb, being either low or high, either equal
to, or in contrast with, the tone of the adjoining syllable.

5. But it is to be remarked tiiat the pronouns of the 2d person,
singular and plural, usually have high tone, even when the other pro-
nouns in the same forms have low tone. See in § 98 the small figures.

§90.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

57

6. In the stem of the verb, we have no change regarding person or
number, except redujdication (§ 99), by which a plurality of subjects
or objects or places, or frequency of an action, may be indicated ;
but the simple stem docs not exclude such plurality or frequency.

7. The pronominal prefixes being the same in all forms (except tone),
we give them all only here, in their threefold form (before open sounds,
before close sounds, according to § 17, and together with the prefix a-)
and shall afterwards only mention the 3rd pers. sing., or occasionally
the Ist and 2d pers. sing.

1 . pers. sing.

2. „ „ w6n^m, thou walkest

*4

1 . pers. plur.

1. pers. sing,
l.pers. plur.

on am, he or she walks
ewom', it is true
ye nam, we ivalk
monlim, you walk
wojiam, they walk.

minim, 1 know
wuTilm, thou knowest
onim, he or she knows
ennim\ it is not true
y^nim, we know
miinlm, you know
w6nim, they know.

mdt^, / have heard
wodt^, thou hast heard
w a t e, he (she) has heard
asow, it has horn (fruit)
ye ate, tve have heard
moate, yoii have heard
woate, they have heard.

mahu, / have seen
woahu, thou hast seen
wahu, he (she) has seen
adu, it has arrived
yeahu, tve have seen
moahu, you have seen
woahu, they have seen.

These two groups of examples we give also in Akan and Fante.

1. pers. sing.
1 . pers. plur.

Ak. mini

„ wuni

„ oni

„ ennim'

t, yeni

„ muni

„ yeni

F. minyim
„ enyim
« onyim
„ onnim'
„ nyenyim
„ ehomnyim
„ wonyim.

Ak. mahunu F. mahu

. ahu

r>

„ woahunu
wahunu
„ aduru
„ yeahunu
n moahunu
„ yeahunu

„ wahu

„ wadu .

„ ny'ahu
homahu
woahu.

n

Moods and Tenses,

00« 1. The Infinitive^ usually counted among the moods, is in fact
no more a verb, but converted into a noun ; yet it will be treated
under the head of ^Verbs' in § 104. - Participles do not exist in
Tshi. — The only true verbal forms are those which assert (or deny),
command (or wish, entreat, forbid), or ask a question.

2. The Indicative Mood^ containing those forms which assert directly,
has seven different forms^ in which we find distinguished;
a. the time of the action indicated by the verb, with reference to the

time of the speaker or of another action, and
h, the completion or inoompletion of the action, or the continuance of
the action or of the state resulting from an action.

58 ETYMOLOGY. §91.

3. For conditional and indirect assertion, or for the Conditional and
Subjunctive Mood of European languages, we have not to state pecu-
liar forms, besides those of the Indicative, — the condition or suppo-
sition being expressed by separate particles which are conveniently
reckoned among the conjunctions. Cf. § 255, 3. 276 — 278.

4. Only one form mentions an action in the form not of an asser-
tion, but of a mere conception, as the expected or intended, natural
or usual consequence of a previous action. See §91,8.

5. The Imperative Mood has two forms^ one for a direct (seldom
indirect) command (or wish, petition, warning, forbiddance) to the 2d
pers. sing., used without any prefix (except the negative), also without
its pronoun, and another with pronominal and nasal prefixes for the
indirect command to the 1st pers. sing, and plur. and sometimes the
2d pers. sing., and for the direct and indirect command to the 2d pers.
plur. and the 3d pers. sing, and plur.

6. Questions are asked by the same forms (including those of the
Imperative.), usually with the addition of interrogative pronouns or
particles. § 153.

01« The ten forms mentioned in § 90, 2. 4. 5. are distinguished

by the following names and characteristics:

(We give as examples, also regarding the tone, verbs of one and two
syllables, with the prefix of the 3d pers. sing.) Cf. § 165 — 182.

1. The Present tense marks doing or being in the present time, at
any indefinite time, or at all times. The stem is in its bare form, i c.
without any prefix (except the pronominal and the negative prefix, §92).

of^, he takes; obisd, he asks.

2. The Continuative form marks continuance of (active or inactive)
state in the present or past time. It is distinguished from the present
by its different tone ; sometimes, especially in reduplication, it has the
palatal suffix. Cf,§103.

6 w g, he has or had; o k u r a, 6 k u r a e, he holds or held.

3. 1'he Preterit tense marks action performed in the past time. It

is distinguished from the present by the tone, and by the palatal suffiXf

which, when followed by an object, is dropped and compensated by

the lengthening of the final vowel.

ofae, he took (it); obisde, he asked;

ofkh no, he took him; ohiskk no, he asked him.

In the negative form, we frequently find the vowel e appended to
the verb or at the end of the sentence. § 170.

4. The Perfect tense marks action completed in the past time, but

§91. THE PABTS OF SPEECH. 59

whose result is present as a state, or whose consequences extend to
the present time. It is formed by the prefix a-.

waf^, he has taken; wabisa, he has asked.
3. The Progressive form marks action in the progress of performance.
It is formed by the prefix re-.

ore fa (orefA), he is taking; orebisa, he is asking.

6. The first Future marks action in the time to come.
It is formed by the prefix be- (be-):

ob^fa, he will take; obebis^, he will ask.
The prefixes of the 1st pers. sing, mebe- are contracted into me-:
m e f a, / shall take ; m e b i s c\, I shall ask.

7. The second Future, or FuL proximate, marks action in the next
future. It is formed by the prefixes rebe-.

orebefA, — orebebis^, he will take — ask — in the next time,
^y 8. The Consecutive form marks an action which is consecutive to
another action, as the expected or intended result from it, or as merely
following after it.

It is formed by the prefix a-, like the Perfect, but with different tones,
na wafa, — na wablsd, that the may take, — ask,

9, The first Imperative form marks an action desired by the spea-
ker to be done by the addressed person. It has no prefix, not even the
pronominal.

fa! take! fk no, take him! b\sa! ask! bis a no, ask him.

10. The second Imperative form marks an action which some other
subject desires to be done by the subject of the verb (in the 1st or 3d
pers. sing, or plur. or 2d pers. plur.) It is formed by the nasal j^re fix,
(§18) and has high tone on the prefixes and the first syllable of the stem.

gmfa, he shall take; ommis^, he shall ask.

In the 2d imperative, preceded by the 1st imp. of ma (which form

is called the compound imperative, cf. § 107, 25 Hem,), the prefixes have

low tone; but after the 2d imp. of ma, they have high tone, as in the

simple form.

Ma omfa, let him take; ma ommistY, let him ask!

momma omfa, let (pi.) him take; momma ommis k, let (pi.) him ask.

omma yemfa, may he let us take; memma mom fa? shall I let you t?

womma mimmisa, may they let me ask.

y^mma wummis^? shall we let thee ask?

Rem. The accented syllable is the first high-toned syllable of any
verbal form, with the following exceptions:
a, the low-toned pronoun has the stress in the forms 2. 5. 6.
h. in disyllabic verbs the first syllable of the stem, though low-toned,

has the stress in the affirmative forms 1.5.8.9.

60

ETYMOLOGY.

§ 92-95.

Other distinctions of the same forms,

02. All these forms are used either in the affirmative or in the
nefjative ivay. The Negative is unexceptionally formed by the nasal
prefix (m-, n-, n-, according to § 18). From the negative Present, the
2d Imp. (§ 91, 10) is distinguished by the tone, and, when negative,
by the doubling of the nasal prefix.

03. Most of these forms have additional imjressive forms^ express-
ing a previous ^'oing or coming for the performance. See § 96. 107 (11).

04. All these forms (§ 91-93) have different tones in the indepen-
dent and in the connected form. See § 97. 11 2.

Examples,

05. The following examples show the ten forms (§91) in the
affirmative and negative way (§ 92) in the independent position (§ 94)
of some verbs:

1. ba, to come, (The Imp. affirmative has exceptionally an *r' inserted).

Affirmative.

1. Pres, gba, he comes

2. Cont. 6 wo ha, he is here

3. Pret, gbd^, he came

gbda hd, he came here

4. Perf, wkhk, he is come

5. Profjr, oreb^, he is coming

6. Fut, I, ob^ba, he ivill come

7. Fut, II, orebebd, id, (directly)

8. Consec. na waba, that he may c,

9. Imp. I, bg'ra! come!

1 0. Imp. II. gmmgr^ ! he shall come!
Comp, Imp, mk gmmer^, \ let him
momma gmmerfi, ) come!

Negative,

gmmd, he does not come
onni ha, he is not here
gmm{le(e), he has not (yet) come
gmmd^ hd(e) he has not come here
wammd, he has not come
gremmd, he will not come
gmmebd, 6mm'ma, id,
(gr^mmebd, id.)

„ na wammd, that the may not c.
mmd! do not come!
gmmmd! he shall not come!
mm^ 6mmm4, momm'md ommmd,
do not let him come!

2. Kg, to go. (The forms 2-4 show some peculiarities of meaning.)

1. Pres, 6k6, he goes

2. Cont. gkg, he is away

3. Pret. gk6e, gk6re, he went away,

gk66 h6, he ivent there

4. Perf, vfkkh-, he has gone ov heen

5. Progr. grek6, he is going

6. Fat, I, gb^kg, he will go

oh kg, he does not go {away, or, to
t!OTne ])lace. expn^ssed or understood)-

ghkge(e\ he did not (yet) go
gfik6g hg(^) he did not go there
wan kg, he has not gone
grehk6, he will not go
ghhkg, id.

7. Fid. II, grebekg, id. (forthwith, directly)

8. Consec. m, wakg, thathemaygo I na wahk6, that he may not go

9. Imp. I kol go! kq ho \ go there! hkg! do not go!

10. Imp, II, 6hko! he shall go I
Comp. Imp. mHohkot^^^j^.;^,
momma gnkg\ '^

gnhkg! he shall not go!

mm^ ohhko i i / i- i ^i

momm mi hnhU \ '^' *"» «"' ^-

§96.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

61

3. ye, to do, maken become, grom, Contin. to he, connected with a noun.

Ony^ ade no, he does not do that
gny^ ab6a, he is not a heast
ony^k, he did not do (it)
ony e6 ade no h, he has not yet done it
wany6 ade no, he has not done it
Qreny| ad^ no I j^^ ^^, .^^ ^^^ ^^ ^j^^^^

na wany^ ad^ no, that he may not.,,

ny^ ad^ no! don't do that!
gnny^ ade no ! he shall not do that!

mm^ gnny^ ade no I donH let
momm'mit 6nny^.. j him do it!

4. gu, to cast (Contin. to lie) and its reduplication gugu, the latter
showing the tones of a disyllabic verb by the side of a monosyllable,
and at the same time the prefix h- before g).

5. susuw, to measure, thinks shows likewise the tone of disyllables
and, by the mark after w, the cases in which trisyllables and poly-
syllables assume low tone; e. g. 1. wopatipatiriw, they slip repeatedly.

1- Qy^ ade, he does something

2. oye onipa, he is a man

3. oy|e, he dit (it)

oy^ ade, he did something

4. way^ ade, he has done s.th.

5. grey^ ade, he is doinp s.th.

6. gb^ye ade, he will do s.th.

7. grebey^ ade, .... (forthwith)
8 na way^ ade, that he may do s.th.

9. ye! do (it)! ye ad^ no! do that!
10, gnye ade no! he shall do that!

9. ma gny^'ade no \ let him
10. momma gnye a. n. J do that!

1. O'gu

osusuw

osusiiwi
wasiisuw'
oresusiiw'
ob^susiiw

ogugu

egugu

ogugii^

wagugu

oregugu

ob^gugu

7. orebegu orebegugu orebesAsuw

8. n^wagu- wagugu — wasusiiw'

9. gu ! (gum6!) gugu ! susuw !
10. oiinu! onnugii! onsusuw

9. m^ohnu!maonnugii! -onsusuw!

2. egu

3. ogui

4. wagii

5. or^gii

6. obegu

on nil
en nil
onhiJil
wan nil
ore n nil
onn nu

onnugu

ennugii

onhugul

wannugii

orennugu

ofih'hugii

onsusuw

onsusiiwi
wansusiiw'
orensusiiw'
onnsusiiw'

nawannu - wannugu -wansusuw

! nsusiiw !

T rkfirtunoii w '

* • ' I

nnu!
onnnu!

nnugui nsusuw!
onnnugii!. onnsusuw

mmil ( 6nnnu -onhugii

m6mm'mii\ -onnsusuw'!

10. momma onhu-ohhugu -onsusuw!

©©• The ingressive forms have the prefix be- or kg- (be- or ko-),
expressive of coming or going; they are either (a) preceded by the
corresponding verb ba, to come, or»kg, to go, in which case the pro-
noun is repeated only in the 1st pers. sing., or ih) the coming or going
for the performance of the action is expressed only by the prefix of
the ingressive form. (This prefix must not be confounded with that of
the Future tense; the tone is different in obefa, but not in grebefa.)

a. Obd (or grebd) abM'4 n'ade, ( he comes (or is cdming) to take his thingsi .
h. Obefa (pr grebefd) n'ade, S (or, his property).

a. Meko (or mereko) makofd me bd, I t ^/ .^ ^^'^„\ 4r. ir.i^^ ^ ni.n^
7 ikM 1 "li / \ Dx\ ' 'L^^JL \ 1 no (or am qotnq) to tafce my chita,

w. Mekgfd (or merekgfd) me ba, \ •' ^ •' '" ^

Excluding the continuative form, of which no ingressive form is

62

ETYMOLOGY.

§97.

possible, the following examples show the ingressive form of the 9
remaining principal forms,

I, in the Affirmative, II, in the Negative;
a. combined with ba or ko, h. by itself.
1. Ex. of monosyllables: tu, to pull Out,

la.

lb.

Ila.

lib.

1. oba (a)b^tu,

obetii

gmmd mmetii,

ommetu

3. gba b^tiii.

obetiii

gmmd' mmetiii,

ommetui

4. wabd ab^tu,

wabetu

wammd ammetii,

wammetu

5. grebd „

orebetii [

gremma mm^tii,

or^mmetii

6. ob^ba „

7. orebeba „

8. (na) wabd „

..wabetu

..wammA ammetii,

..wammetii! i

9. ber^ betu !

b^tu !

mmd mmetu!

mmetii! 1

10. ommSrd mmetn!

ommetu !

gmmmd mmmetii!

ommmetii ! 1

2. Ex. of dis

yllables : tuti

I, redupl. of tu, to pull out. \

la.

16.

Ua.

116.

1. oko (a)k6tutu

okotiitu

ghkg ii kotutu,

onkotutu

3. ok6' kbtiitui

okotiitui

gnkg' hkotutui

ohkotiitui

4. wak6 akotiitu

wak6tutu

wank6 ankotiitu

wankotdtu

5. grek6 „

orekotiitu

grenkg hkotiitu

oren kotutu

6. ob^kg „

7. grebek6 „

8. (na)wak6 „

..wakotutu

..wan kg ahkotutii

..wahkottUili

9. k6 kotutu!

kotutu !

hkg n kotutu!

nkotiitu ! 1 "^

10. 6hkg n kotutu!

on kotutu!

ghhk6 nnkbtiitu!

onnkotiitii !

OT. The connected forms (used e. g. after the relative particle h,
in adjective sentences § 257) are different in tone from the indepen-
dent forms.

1. Pres. oy^ k oy^ a. s. 6ny^, a doing which he does or does not.

2. Cont. gb^ne a gye a. s. gny^, a king that he is or is not.

3. Fret. ad6 a gye^ a. s. gnyee, a thing which he did or did not.

4. Perf. „ „ way^ „ wany^, a. tJi. wh. he has or has notjdone.

5. Progr. „ „ 6rey6 - 6reny^, a. th. wh. he is or is not doing.

6. Fut. 1. r, n ob^ye - 6nny^, a. th. ivh. he tvill or will not do.

7. fl i/. „ „ 6rebeye - gremm^y^, (ditto in the next future.)

8. Consec. e. g. gb^sah ay6, he will return to do=he tvill do it.dgain.

9. Imp. 1. nea 6kd se y^ no, ivhat he says\thou shall do,

n n nnyi uo, „ „ „ „ „ not do.
10. Imp. 1 1, nea 6s^ 6nye no, what he says he shall do,

„ „ 6nn y^ no, „ „ „ „ n not do.

We observe in most cases, that in the connected form

1. low tones after high tones become middle, and

2. low tones before high tones become high, with the effect that succee-
ding high tone frequently becomes middle. — It would lead too far,
to repeat all the forms contained in § 95. 96. in the connected form.

§98.

THE PABT8 OF SPEECH.

63

9S« A Synoptical View of the Ten Principal Forms
in the independent form of the Affirmative (I) and Neff alive (II),
and in the connected form of ditto (III. IV).

A. In Figures^ before the comma denoting the tones of the prefixes,

after it, those of the stems.*)

a, ivith monosyllabk stems:

h. with disyllabic stems:

I. III.

11.

IV.

I.

III.

II. IV.

1. 3,1 — 3,2

1,3

31,3

- 3,2

: 1,13 -
3,13

- 1,33

8,22

1,13 3,13

3,18

2. 1,1 — )3,3
3,1 il,3

do.

« f)

1,11 -
3,11

- 3,31

1,31 3,33

3,31

3. 1,31— 3,32

3,31

1,31

31,31

— 3,32

1,131-

3,131

- 3,332

1,131— 3,332

8,131

4. 3,1 3,2

1,3
3,2

- 3,2

1,33 -

3,22

3,33

8,22

1,13— 3,13

8,18

5. 13,1(11,3)33,2

33,1 31,3

31,3

33,2

11,13 -
31,13

- 33,33

31,13— 33,13

6 13,3 13,3

33,3 33.3

n «

n fl

13,31 -

33,31

- 13,32

88,82

n n f» n

7. 111,3 —333,3

311,3

311,3 •

—331,3

111,31 -
311 ,31

-333,32

311,31—331,32

8. 1,3 3,2

3,2

1,3

8,2

- 3,2

1,13 -
3 13

- 3,13

1,13— 3,13

3,18

9. 3(1) 3

1,3 -

- 1,3

11 -

33

1,13 1,13

in. 3,3(1,3) 3,3

1,3 -

31,3 1

3,31(1

,31)3,32

1,13 31,13.

*) The smaller figures denote the tones of the 2i pers. sing, and phir.
in those cases in which the tones of the pronominal prefixes, and some
times of the succeeding stem, differ from those of the 1st and 3d persons.
§ 89,5. E. g. II. I. mintu, wiin'tu; 3. yentiii, miin'tiW.

B, In Examples: tu, to pidl out; tua, to put or fix (somewhere);
for the contin. form: so, to he small; kura, to hold, have in hands.

la.

lb.

Ila.

II/>.

1.

6tu

otua

ontu

ontua

2.

6s6

okura

ons6

onkur^

3.

otu\

otuae

ontii^

ontud^

4.

watii

watiia

wantii

t)- ink

a.

oretu

oretua

6r^ntii

-tu4

6.

ob^tu

t)-tua

6nn'tu

-tua

7.

orebetu

-tiii^

or^mmetu

-tM

s.

(na) watii

-tua

(na) wantu

-tua

9.

tu! til no

! tua!

ntii!

ntua !

l«.

ontu!

-tua!

onntii!

-tud!

T) The hyphen before tua replaces those prefixes which are the same
in sounds and tones as before tu, e.g. in form 7: orebetui^, 6r^m-
uietiid, and on pag. 61., nea 6rebetud, nea 6remm6tud.

b4

ETYMOLOGY.

f

\W.

Ilia.

III?>.

-

[Va.

IV6.

1.

(nea) otii

otua

(nea)

ontii

6ntua

2.

n Q8^

6kura

ons6

onkura

3.

„ 6tiii

6tuae

r»

ontui

6ntna^

4.

„ watu

watua

n

wantii

-tud

•

5.

„ oretii

-tua

r>

orentii

-tM

6.

J, obetu

-tud

n

(S until

-tud

7.

„ orebetu

-tud

„ oremmotu

-tiid

8.

(na) watu

-tiid

(na)

wantii

-tud

9

nea 6ka s^ tii

. . . tua

• • •

ntii

. . . ntilid

10.

(nea) ontu

-tud.

(nea)

6nntu

-t{id.

Reduplication of Verbs.
(Iterative and frequentative forms.)

00« 1. Almost all verbs may be doubled, some even twice, to
denote a successive or a simultaneous frequency of action, viz.
a, a plurality or repetition of actions^ or
h. a plurality of the suhject, or
c, a plurality of the object or other complement.

teem', to cry out (once); teeteem\ to cry out (repeatedly);

wu, to die (of one or several persons) ; wuwu, to die (in numbers).

b g, to heat, break ; b o b o, to knock repeatedly, to break into many

pieces, to shatter; to break many things (e.g. pots),
bu, to bend, break; bubu, to bend or break a thing in many places;

to break many things (e.g. sticks).
hn6 gugu fam\ palm-oil is spilt on various spots on the ground,

2. Sometimes even the simple verb denotes an action which is a
complex of repeated subordinate actions; but a reduplicative form may
exist beside the simple one, and each of them may have its proper use:

di and didi, to eat; di is used with an object, didi, without 202,2.4.

horo, to ivash (clothes); hoho, ^o wash (the face, hands, feet); hohoro

(kuru wam', tirim), to wash (the inside of a vessel, one's head),

3. Some verbs assume a somewhat different meaning by reduplication:

fwe, to look at, fwefwe, to seek, to look for;

pono, to bend, pompono, to wrinkle;

si, to place, put, sisi, to deceive;

sie, to lay up, preserve, siesie, to put in order, arrange.

4. Some verbs are no more used in their simple, but only in their
reduplicated form:

dad a, to deceive, hwinwi, to murmur, susuw, to measure, think-

5. On the form of reduplication, see § 29, 4.

G. By reduplication, monosyllabic verbs become disyllabic, also in
tone, and disyllabic (and trisyllabic) verbs become trisyllabic or poly-
syllabic.

§1Q0. 101. TJ0CE PABTS^'OF SPEECH. i 05

— . — 1» II I .- " . 1 . . ■ ■ — ■■ ■ - ■■ " '

100* "Yhe tone of trisylldhk^Umd' potysyUahk- venl)S follows that of
dissyllables, tjie 3J, 4tb ^iid.6th ^yl^l^l^s usually sinking jnjip laysl^^^nes,
rhongh tlic 2(1 syllable, haye* high <^e^ as •}ij\s- beea iiidicA^ted,^i* tl^e
vorb &usi]LW» given as an (pcaniple in- § .95, 5. . .• ;

E.g. ne k.aw adQre,/«^ 4^W &(»s^. ^V^{??'^ i .. « ,;;. •

n'dkaw adodore or ado-dododTore, his. dehts have iiirreased.

Different lone andlreditplimtM form of derUiifi. h^,< ^ - ^

lOl. 1. Certain monosyllahk verbs are like dissyllahies I'n fche, vtz.

:iH verbs that have a long vaw^el or a dipht'lioiig' with jintaTal' tr^nii-

ujttion, and part of the verbs ending 'in ni or i'k'*§ *28, 3, ?>. 4T). ' '^♦^

E. g. gtfi' no, he perseetdes him; *o'se^n^,-'fe^ spoifs- Mm; ■^* ^'"^
on a \\ d ad e, he mells iron: See; 11 examples in 8; 4^.'. IT.

2. Certain dissyllahi' verbs fire like' monosyllables mUMP., \'y^^- part
cif those in Which the vowel-part is aiigmerited by an accessory ^syllable
beginning with r or n (§ 28^ 3, 7.), of the forms: . , ' '

are, ane, ere, ore; ere, ene, iri, Jni; 01:0, 01I0, pru, if n ii*

K. g. oh^re k^ro w, 7/6' ro?V3 ci carioe\ akoko twan'e, /7/-rf.' lien flickles:-^
oforo dud, he f limbs a -tree. See ^ exami)les in .*>. 4V1. .

.*]. Several pairs of verbs exi«t, .which contain the. same- Ivitors, but
arrv, notVithstandtng;. as of diffident meaning', so of difft'Hjnt i^^dne.

The following' list shows 1. verbs with the tone of monosyUables, 1 1, vorhs
with the tone of dissyllables, a. iilthe simj>U% b. in the rednplica'fed form.

If/. I/>. V Ha, : > . .II/>.

odan, he applies tOy denniln; gdan', Ae ///rvi.^; - da^n'min.
odun, he soaks, ^lonn(fj'i^ . wlgll^ Af /r^^/As ay/'6J(to//7A d^n'n<'>»»-

eguan, // niijiers gunnmi^*; t>g&an', he. (kex . .: . ' gt^iV^naii.

ohyei'i, //e7>/o/rs(ahorn) hyerihyen ; ohyOiiV,. //><? e/^:.s\ • { . KyeiVhycMi.

opere, he ffoes (dow.}^ peper^; operj^, 7/6' dhfends, ' 'pereperc
osgre, he prays, .sosgre ; • gsore,' frf? me5, ''sgrt'^ttore.

ovtiie', he is l^ony, MWjVwbWare; -owar^, 7/^ ma)rries^' : ^ war** ware.

4. Similar verbs, in* which thei'd is a difference of sin j»Tf sounds,
brides that tif'fAiV(H cii-e: ' ' * ' ''^■**'' • *

I//. ': \h: • ' Ila. • / " • * W'r '■''■'

^ikiiy irqetH-'^oose, .'■ MjefihAfr;:. ghaii'. he Opens,' ' ' \u\i\'\\1f\\.
ohfian, he disjof'ids; huAbmin ; ohurin' he peels, hMiln^Hnan.

opilm, //// roveirnnis, cf. 6patn(iw3.); gsaiV, heloosens!,%'t<i\H\v\\ (^\\*\. ab<»v(0.
/Mian, he reroils^ sinfiiAn ; ' okiiin.'," Up desrends, . siVimwAii.

ehitru, // hoils, ." bit hnri'i : -ohnrViw', he junk/^')^^ •'hln>AliVir-nu .

dt&ni, he carries (a child) tutunu : Huv\\tnT%}w^it%lfHrfd^ iU* fl4f'i^ ojf in
. . : ': .' . . . ; . . : .' : './ ' nhidi'-phyliHi^i :

o

ee ETYkOLOGY. .J4(

^iW^P^^^^^B^^^'^'V^^

V^b$ used in the Gontinualive Form.

103« Not all veirbs have a contjfnaative form ; but there ar6
that are only Mf^^i^ in this form, and have non^ besides.

The latter iire partly correlatives of verbs having no continttitifil |
form, both of thetli mutually filling up their deficiencies.

We give a liat 6f the verbs used in this form, adding some reiniriuli
and examples, and marking those, that have no other form btedeSiju
with an asterisc* \l

1. Substantive verbs, denoting existence and requiring a comple-
ment of distinction, quality, or number (a noun, pronoun, adjective
t>r numeral in the nominative):

*nej to be (idefUical m(h)^ to consist in.
ye, to be (to have (he qualitif or function of).
si, gu, nam, to be (existing or present in the number of).

2. Verbs that denote a state of holding or possessing^ and reqnire
a passive object:

wo, to havey to be in the possession of] Neg. nni (from di);

correl. nya, to get. k

de, to holdy have (in handy in fiu>ught)y possess; I

correl. fa, to take (also for the neg.). I

kura, to havey holdy contain; fcita, fua, to have (in hand).
se, siane, to have hanging abouty to wear.
bo, to have fastened abouty to jvear.
fura (otam, ntama), hye (atade, kyew), md (amOase), to weait\

(a countrjf'cloth'y a garmmty a hat; a waist-cloth).
*so, to have on the heady to carry; correl. so a, to carry.
turn, to have (a child) on (he arm or bachy to carry.
*TL\m, Ak. ni, F. nyim, (to have in One's head or minSy) to know;

correl. h CLJ Ak. hunu, to see.

Rem. Most of these verbs may also occasionally have the thing pos-
sessed, held, worn, as their subject; e. g* f

mewo qiih hi, I have a house;

giiii yi w6 me, this house belongs to me;

aw6w dino, cold seiises himj i, e. he is (feds) cold;

okurapomd,or, pomikiira ne nskixiyhehasasUckinhishaiiii;

ohye mpabo4, or, mpaboi hyihye vH VLnkiiy he wears sa/ndah*

3. Verbs that denote existence in a place (in general, or in partien- \
lar situations), and require a complement of place:

*wo, to he somewhere; neg. nni; correl. ba, to comey ko, to go.

fi, to belong to a placCy to have one^s origin from; ^

wabefi hg, he ha^ appeared or emerged there.
Hey to sity live; correL tra, t^nft, to sit.

da, gu, bew, bea, boa, sam, butuw, to lie.

ta, bum, to sit; kotow, to sgtiot, sU coweringy hned.

gyina, si, to stand; si, to perch (of birds); t^eri, to learn.

f ICIS. 104. THE PABT8 OP SPEECH. (57

hye, tim, tua, to stirk; sen, siane, koi'ikoii, /o hamf.
sa, man tarn, to he fastened somewhere,
sail, to he drawn (of a line);

etwa sail n'ani ase, a scar crosses his cheek.

T\\v, following verbs imply motion in a place:

tone (fam), to creep alo7i(f ; ten (ani), to float, he afloat; sen, to flow;

*nam, to walk; eorrel nan tew, to walk (nsed witliont reference ton

place); fa, to take (a road, a turn, nsed with a complement of place).

The verbs sen and nam may also be nsed without a complement
of place.

.4. Verbs that denote a mode of ejcislen'e or a qtudity:

*te, to he (in some state); it wants a complement of manner.

see §215. (Jorrel. ye, to hecome.
*ye, to he (food; eorrel. expression: ye yiye.
*mijo, to he had; eorrel. expression: ye bone,
so, to he lar()e; scia, to he smuU; ware, to he lon^j.

Some dissyllabic verbs denoting quality have the tone of the present

tpnse :

b^re, to he red; \)\v\, to he hlack; ho a, to he while:
ter^w, to he hroad, wide.

5. Verbs that denote a sla'e implying comparisofi:

se, to he fit, equal, alike; seii, kyeii, boro, to surpass, he more than;
sono, to he different; fanim, to he less had.

(These two are used with an impersonal pronoun, see § 157, 2.)

6. Verbs that d(»notc a state of mind concerning an object :

pe, do, to like, to lore; kyi, tan, to detest, to hate.

Mark these differences: odo no, lie lores him (always, ron'iniudly);

odo no, he loves him (now and then); odoo no, Jhe loved him (formerly).

103* The continuative form has sometimes, in some of these verbs
(§ 102), espec. in reduplication, the palaftd suffix, like the preterit
tense, but with different tone; e. g.

woyiyei, wgsosoe, wosusiiae, wo wo war ee, wnsesee,
they are (jood, larfje, small, lon;\ equal .

Infinitive Mood. Verhal Nomi.

104. The infinitive mood, callet so because it expr< sses an action
or state in its most general or indefinite meaning (not confine I to an
agent, in Tshi also not to time), is a verb converted into a noun.

Rem, Whilst in English, e. g. of the verb to die, we have different
forms, viz. the proper infinitive, in ^lel him die, J ivish to die,^ —
the gerund, in "^ Shall we he consumed with dyinfj?^ Numh. 17, Jy*.
2 Cor, 4, 10. — and the verbal noun death: tliere is no decided dif-
ference in "J'shi between the forms of the infinitive and thosi* of otin'r
verbal nouns, which even pass over into concrete nouns.

68 ETYMOLOGY. § K

The infinitive is formed from the stem

1. by the prefix o- (which is dropped in the connected form); e.g.

gba, coming, gkg, going; obii, hreah'ng] ok 6, fighting, fight;
own, dying, death; gkenkah, rcadiiig; gkasji, speaking, languafjt

2. by the prefix a- (limited to certain verbs and compound infinitives):

adgw, tilling (the ground); as aw, dancing; aguare, washing;
adidi, eating; a wo, hirtJi, bringing forth '^ ago, li^ovw, playing, plmj:
akasakdsd^ akamekame, apereper^,, strife, quarrel.

3. by the prefix m- (n-, n-) (limited to certain verbs) ;

n n a, sleep ; nsisi, nnada, deceit ; n k y i a, greeting \ h h y i a, ^neetinfj ;
h h y i r d, Messing ; n n o m ^, cursing ; n k a m f o, praise ; n s o p a, slander.

4. by the palatal suffix (of rare occurence):

Onim mekgree ne mebae, he knows my going and coining.
Da nkwa da nnipa nhina dae, eternal life lies ready for all men.

5. by the nasal prefix and palatal suffix, chiefly used in a compound »

inflexional form of the verb, see § 107, 22.

Wanya ho nkge, he has often gone there.

Many a no fo ntui, 1 have often admonished him.

Nea wdny^ iihui no, ouyk hkae, he who has (repeatedly) seen

a thing, knows to speak of it.
Wgannyil mhuf {\, wgannyjl n'kae, as long as one has not

known a thing, he cannot talk of it.

10S« Compound infinitives (which, concerning their moaning and!
use, are also equal to other verbal derivatives in English) are formed:]

1. Of two verbs: a. with or without the prefix g-;
b. with the prefix a- or m-; c. with the nasal prefix and palatal snflix.

a. sgfwe, tempting, temptation; sufre, gdadwen, §39,7.

b. nkotgsere, begging, suppliration\ ahycmfiri, goiiuj in' and out.

c. Many^ no nkakyerec, 1 have often told him (§ 107,22),

2. Of a verb and its complement of place, with the nasal prefix:

mfiase, mfitiase, nhyease, mmoarin6, nnauani &c.8ee §39, 6/>.
n k y e r e a s ^, explanation; n k g s 6, going on ; m f o m so, transgression;
n 1 1 h 6, comparison ; n h u m u, insight ; n h y c a n d n m ii, restituiion.

Complements of place that have the prefix a-, may be the first part I
of the compound :

asefi, as eh ye, asekyere, anoboa, anidan, anjin miiliye, §39,5//.

3. Of a verb and its object (or spe'-ific complement), the latter form-
ing the first part:

.Wagyde as^hkil, he has ceased preaching (fr. ka asem, to preach)* (
WgagyAe d wont 6, they have left off singing (fr. to d worn, to sing).
Wanhil aguddi, he did not understand trading (di gua, to trade).
Onim abebu, he knows to tell proverbs (fr. bu be, to teU proverbs).
Ojb i iV ky e r 6 a gy i n a m o jI a k r g m m g, nobody teaches a cat to Mefil
(fr. bg krgu, to steal).

5-106.107. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 69

Rem. 1. When the object has any attribute, before or behind it,

it must be written as a separate word ; e. g.

Onnyae dwom no to, he does not leave off' simjinfj that hymn.
Hem. 2. When the object and the infinitive are not phonetically

mited, they may be written as separate words; e. g.

Dnipa Onnyae mmobo y^ a, wonuyae no mmobo h u, as lonff
as a man does not cease to be miserable, theij don't cease to 'com-
miserate him. Prov. Cf. m m g b o r o h u n u, a h 1i m g b g, § 39, 5.

4. Of a verb and its subject:

ihopopo, tremblinff; ah6dwiriw, amazement'^ anfgye, joi/;
ai b o t u, despondency ; ayamhyehye, compassion. § 39, 5 a. b.

Item. Combinations of the cases 1 — 4, see § 39, 8.

5. Of a verb and the noun na, marking difficulty of doing, or ye,

marking easiness of doing.

-Ade no ye gye-nct, that thing is not easily done.

Ns'im no ase ye ohu-n«t, those words are not easily understood.

Of a abufiiw a, wodi no pata-na, when he gets angry, he is not

easily pacified.
Dbenya. n'ad6 '*^y^-y^i he will be able to do his things well.
1) n n y a n s e m no a s e a k y e r e - y e, he cannot well explain these words.

COMBINATIONS OF VEBBS.

lOO. Many comhinations of a principal verb with one or two
auxiliary verbs are used to express various modifications and relations
of actions (seldom of states). We consider these combinations as a
kind of compound inflexional form, and have their numbers follow
those of the ten simple forms, § 91. In most of them either tlie au-
xiliary, or the principal verb, or both, are used in some or all of those
uimple forms. We give only one form in the 3rd pers. sing.

107. 'J'he first class of verbal combinations contains auxiliary

verbs which may be applied to any, at least any active, verb. We

take y e as a representant of the principal verb.

If. Ob a b6ye, shorteuod : gbeye, he comes to do\

gkg kgy6, „ okgy^, he goes to do. (Ingressive form.)

When a previous going or coming, required for the performance
of an action, is expressed by the independent verb ba or kg,
this verb must be repeated with the principal verb in the form of
the prefix be or ko; but, by way of shortening, the prefix alone
will do. See §96.

H Op4 aye (=gpe se gye), he sceJcs, desires, wishes to do. (Dc-
siderative form) — Of. § 203 Rem. 256 Rem.
(The Future gbeye, he will do, may also express: he wishes to
do, yet in a less degree.)

tt» Oy^ ay^» '*6 is about to do, is in preparation for doing. (PrC"
parative form)

L

1

70 ETYMOLOGY- § 1(»,|

14. O'uy^ yc, lit. he gets does, i. c. he gets to the point of dointf, hi

does already. 'Jliis form is very frequently used in the preterit
negative: orinyit nyee(e), he has not yet done, §230,3.

15. Ofi(a8^) y^, ofiti ase ye, he her/ins does, (obo^ ye, hehefftHS

doimi) i.e. he begins to do, (Inceptive or inchoative form.)§2^^*6.

16. Od^ so ye, he Hies on' does ] i. e. he continues to do, does still
oko 80 y6, he 'goes on' does \ =oyeara. (Forms of continuanx
gtoa 86 ye, he ^joins upon' does] and continuation.) § 230, 4.

17. Q y ^ k y e, he does delays ;
oy^ mk ekye, he does, causes it to last (tonff); i. e,lte does con-
tinuing for a long time. Cf. §231,^.

18. Q ky 6 y^ (inf.), he delays doing, i. e. he does not do for a lot^ time.
Cf. Q'kye n(6bd, he delays his coming; oba^ «ikye, he came,

it has become long, i. e. 1 . he came a long while ago ; 2. he did
no more come since a long time. §231, 2.4.

^^' Q y « w 1 e. he does finishes ; \ i. e. he does to the end, completely
o w i e y e (inf.) he finishes doing; | § 230, 5.

20. Osdii ye, h^ returns (repeats) does\ i.e. he does again, repeOftedli/;
osim' ye, he puts in „ „ J =:oyebi6. (Iterative form).
otim' ye, he picks in „ „ J § 230, 2.

21. Ota ye, he persecutes does, i.e. he does often = 6y^ dL (Fre-

quentative form) § 230, 2.

22. Wdnyil nyee, (inf.) he has got doings, i.e. he has often done,

has become used to do. See § 230, 2.

23. O turn i ye, he is able does, i. e. he can do, is able to do, § 203 Rew.

24. O'htl y^, onim ye (inf.) he knows doityj, i.e. he can do, knows

or understands to do,

25. Wg m it g y e, they give (or cause) he does, i. e. tJiey cause him to I

do, make or let him do, he is caused or made, suffered or per-
milted to do, (Causative form) § 91, 10. 255, 3. Bern,

Hem. In the Akyeni Dialect the subject of the principal verb is
made the object of the auxiliary; e.g. WgmA gkge, Ak. wgm&Sno
kgre^ they made him go. Ma gnkg, Ak. ma no kg! let him go!

lOA. A second class of verbal combinations are such, in which
the auxiliary verb de or corresponding verbs (fa, gye, yi,...) are used.

26. Ode ..ye, he holds or uses ., does, i. e he does by^ with, he makes of;

the auxiliary verb de stands for the Engl, prepositions hy^ with,

in, for and of introducing, as its object, the means or instrument

or material for the action of the principal verb. Cf. § 237. E. g.

Ode addre twa duba', with a bill-hook he cuis a branch.

Ode dua sen agud, of wood he carves a stool,

(J'mfa n'asgw ukgdgw', he shall go to work wiOi lus Ikoe^

§ 109' THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 71

■■111 ■ T«

27* Qnafn.. 80 y^ he walks aver (somebody or AOmething) does^ i.e.
he ffofSS by or by meafis of; nam with the postposiUon so is also
updd ^ express the way^ means or mediator of an action; in the
inoperative and negative forms, n a m is replaced by f |l E. g.

^I^iim ne b4 s6 fr^ y^n, he calls us by his son*
^i^^m nnad& s6 nyii, he got (it) by deceit.
M§pf4 nk6ntompo s6 mannv^ obi blribf, / did not take
qny thing from any man by false accusation,

28. Qde,. mS, ky e,.kyer$, here.., (he takes ..) give^^ presents^ shows^
brings, I'he auxiliary supplies the want of distinction between two
ol^ective cases (dative and accusative), introducing the direct (imme-
diate) object and leaving the indirect (remote) object to the prin*
cip|l verb. Cf. § 206, 2. E. g.

Qd>Q akutii mk abofri no = O'mft abofr4 no ak^ttk,

%e gives the child an orange.
Qde mfonfni kyir^ n&b4=Qkyer$ ni b4 mf6nini,

he shows his child a picture.
Wo4pii*f4 fw^ ammeri mi, you brought me nothing.

29. Qde.. ba, ko, fa, tr&, si. ..Q}hhi)^hebringSjtakes^puts... somewhere]

Q(|f «*hyia (obi), foro, si&n (bepQw), san...

^^ ^he auxiliary introduces an object which is caused by the subject
to take the direction or occupy the place indicated by the prin-
cipal verb (and its object or complement of place). Thus the in-
trl^)Qitive principal verb assumes a transitive meaning by its con-
lICNCiion with the auxiliary. Cf § 206, 3. 4. E. g.

0|i4^ ofie, he came home. Agu& hi si h6, a stool stands there.

Qdl) P<^ ba^ ofie, he brought him home.

Oq^ f guA si h6, %^ places a stool (here.

Wq4^ ntr&ma gu adikdm, they put cowries into a box.

Odd n^ nnipa f orb b^pow, he ascends a mountain unth his men.

Ff n6 k6 fie, take him (go) home. F4 k^! aw^y with it!

1|^|P« A third class of verbal combinaJUons are such in which the
au:|i|||M^y adds the expression of e^iV^c^ion to the principal verb. (Such
directive verbs supply the place of the directive prepositions in Engl.)
We may distinguish 3 cases:

31. "^wd or three locative and at the same time directive verbs are
combined. Cf. § 223, 2. 4. E. g.

fi ^^fszfrom).. ba, ko, fwe, si, duru...

ft^(s= through)., ba, ko.

Ofi du4 sh fw^i fdm* he coming from on (he tree f^ to the
ground, i. e. he fell down from the tree.

Ofii Gaiilea faa Samaria koQ (or baa) Yudea, he proceeded
from Galilee took (his way) through Samaria went (or came)
to Judea^ \. e. he went from G. to J. by way of S.

Bern. Not directive^ but merely locative^ is the auxiliary verb wo;
see §117.

72. ETYMOLOGY. § nO.?|

31. iDireUim verbs, either loeattve or objective, ?tre added to intrantu-'
tivc- verbs. Cf. § 223. '224. E. g.

• f ii (f i) . . b a , k o, b e t r A, k o t r a . ; , to'^ remove (from r.) to .. .
gn^an (fi)... lia,' ko (loc), to flee (from..yto sOme place;
„ „ do, toa (ebj.); „ „ v> ^' „ :„ ' person;

guare (fi).. twa (obj.), ba, ko {\o(i.),. lo swim (froth:.) over., to..
buruw tra (obj.) si (loc;), to leap (hoimd) ovei\:\q)C^i,. -
twa.. ho si, hyia, to cut around., sttmd or meet ^ i e. to surround,
kotQ sere. .J to mpplicc4e he(J (somebody). [encompiiss.

s.« i're.. to iveep call, i.eAo implore^

..k^sa kyere.. to speak address, i.e. to- admonish, instruct.

,Otu fii A saute b^tr^a Aky'eui; he removed from As. to Akuni.
Ofii Dodi guare twaA! Firaw' bai\. Awurahai, . * .
he swam from Dodi over the Volta to Awarahai.

32. Directive \(ivh^ are added to transitive verbs. Cf. § 206> 3. 223, 4. E. g:.

ye., ma, fa, to do or ynahe for...

kyerew.. berc, mana, kgma, to write to..

hu ma, te ma, su ma, to sympcUhize, have compassion ivith..
;ye.'.- tia, bye, gu.. so, to do ajfUinst .:

kcl (as em) kycre^ to speak to; ka.. si so, to speak., make up:
.ka. (nnuan) kg (danmu), to cb^ive (sheej)) into (the stahle);

k a . . bo m\ bo h o , t b a m', k fi ho, b g a n i m, 7o join together :

bg.r^gu, fwete, pete, pansara; pam.. gu, to scatter^ disperse:

fwie... gu, to 2^ our out; tow.. gu,'kyene, to cast awatj;

frc.. ba, hyiji. . ba, to call, hid (tO come), to invite,

Jlepjim tros me ma Kofi, J sew troicsers for K.

Meiiw^ne ket^ ma fa, / weave a mat for myself.

Wa kyerew uhoma aberc me, na me nso mekyerew' bi

mekom«U\uo, he has written a letter to me, and 1 ,also wrote

one to him,

no, A fourth class of verbal, combinations are such in which

IW. two transitive verbs are combined so as to express one notion.
Tlie formpr of the two, as the principal verb, is followed by the
object; the second verb makes up the sense of the former and refers
to tlje same object without repeating it, or may have it« own de-
ject in the form of a sentence introduced by the conjanction' se.
gyc (asem) di; gye..tie, tobelieve. [Of. gyo (aduan) di, tu

receive food (and) eat; ^ya nom! take (and) drink!]
k a . . f w e, so . . f \v e, li li it m . . t i e, fo taste, trij.

]\Iigye no midi, 7 believe (in) him. Wagye atie, he has oheijtiL
Makil aduaiV no mafwe, I have Uisted that food. . .

^I 6 s g (m e h 6) m a f w ^. s e m e t u m i n o a n d ?

1 will try whether I shall be able to overcome him.
O'JiuAm ta no atie sc ey6 {\nd?

He smells at the tobacco to see whether it is good or not.

Item. Between this and the following class, we might mention the
combination. of a principal verb with auxiliaries of (comparison and)
gradation: (se,) sen, kyeh. See § 117, 3(i.)6'. 269. 271. • •• ■•

§^111-114. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 73

111* A fifth class of verbal combinations are such in which
34. a subordinate verb (taking the lead) is used to express an adver-
bial circumstance of the principal action; of. § 233, 3. 234. E. g,

Opatiiw ye, he does (it) suddenly/, unexpectedly;

Ohintdw ye, onam ase ye, he does (it) secretly^ clandestinely;

On am so ye, he does (it) forthwith, straiffhtforward.

Onam nndmso ye, he does (it) undauntedly.

■UL2m In most of these verbal combinations (§106-111), either the
auxiliary, or the principal verb, or both of them, may Ije used in some
or all of those simple forms mentioned in § 91,1-10. Two or more
single combinations may be united in one complex combination. In
all these cases of connected forms, the tones often differ from those
of the simple forms, but it would lead us too far, to specify the dif-
ferent combinations and tones in this place.

[Forciipi students of the laiiguaj^e will do well in having sentences and periods
read to thera by natives, and mai'king; the tones for theii* own use, until they have
lu'eome accustomed .to the ways in which the tones are adapted to the different
combinations.]

An observation that will go pretty far in this respect, is this : Two
verbs frequently join in high tones; e.g. instead of meko na maba,
we say; meko maba, 7 (JO (with the intention) to come (a(fain).
Instead of: migy^ midi, we say: migye midi, 1 believe {it).

113« Many verbal notions that are expressed by simple verbs in
the English and other European or Asiatic languages, are expressed
by syntactical combinations of verbs with specific subjects or objects
and other (adverhiRl)' complements. We call themverbal phrases, and
do not treat them here as 'compound verbs', but refer them to the
syntax (§ 210-220) and the dictionary.

0. ADVERBS including POSTPOSITIONS.

111. An adverb shows place, or time, or manner and decree, or

muse and similar circumstances of an action or state.

Rem. Togetlier with the adverbs tliat ar^^ mere adjuncts to predi-
rates, we speak here also of the cowplements of place.

Adverbs are usually adtled to verbs (whence their name). When the

verb has aii object or othei* complement, the adverb stands after it.

(Some adverbs are also put before the subject, e, g. gy a ma, § 183.)

O'b^ ha da, he always comes here. Men ko ho d t\, 1 never (jo there.
O'ye n'adwuma yiy^, he does his work welL
Ode ahenc abo nensd few so kwa, he wears beads round his
wrist only for fnery.

Sometimes adverbs are added to adjectives of quality, showing degree.

•Bye dud kese pa, // is a very larye tree,
Obo no y^ duru se, (hat stone is very heavy.

74 ETYMOLOGY. §116-117.

. - '^ 1

119* A word that (lenotes place, time, manner, cause &c. not by
itself alone, but with reference tp, and in connection with, other things
or notions, expressed by nouns or pronouns, is, in the English and
many other languages, called « preposition 6r postposition^ and may
show, not only the relation of an action or state to a (hing^ but also
(by omission of a verbal i^otioo) the relation of a thing to a thing;
e. g. a cloth lies on the tahle; the cloth on tlie table (=:the cloth whid^
lies on tlie table) is white. In Tshi this class of words does not exist,
and we must show here the way in which they are supplied partly
by verbs, partly by nouns which are also used as adverbs, and partly
by both of them.

110« We shall, therefore, speak under the head of ^Adverbs* :
I. Of prepositions and postpositions in general ;
II. of nouns of place and relation, serving as adverbs and post-
positions;

III. of other nounSj pronouns and adverbs of place ;

IV. of nouns and adverbs of time;

V. of nouns and adverbs of manner and degree',
VI. of nouns and adverbs of cause \
VII. of English adverbs expressed otherwise in Tshi.

I. Prepositions and Postpositions,

117. The prepositions of European and other languages are ex-
pressed in Tshi

a. by a class of auxiliary verbs, which we may call prepositional
verbs, combined with the principal verb of the sentence, as has
been shown in § 108. 109.

b. by postpositions, which are in fact nouns (of place and reiationy

A. The prepositional verbs are used for the following relations:

1. Relations of place,

a. Rest in a place (in answer to the question where?) is indicated by
wo (§ 102, 3). This verb introduces a place where the subject or
object is, or an action goes on; the place itself is indicated by fiOMfi^
of place, part of which, when referring to certain obJ€»cts, are also
called postpositions (§118-127). Together with such postpositions,
wo may stand for the prepositions in, on, at, by, toith; upon, aver,
above, under, behw, amongst, between, before, behind, about^ near.

b. Direction from a place (whence?) is expressed by fi, fir i, to come
or proceed from, answering to the preposition from and (especially
together with the postposition mu) otU of. §109, 30. 31.

§117. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 75

c. Directiofi to or towards a place (whither?) in indicated by the verbs
k o, to jjfo, b a, to come^ and the same as ingressive prefixes (k o-,
ko-, be-, be-, §96.) before other verbs, as: si, du, k^l, pern, tra &c.,
also by gii, kyene, pete, kyere, &c. § 109,31.32. Together
with' nouns of place or postpositions^ those verbs express the pre-
position to, unto, towards, into, up, down; upon, over, above, under,
below, amomfst, between, before, behind, about, near.

d. Oilier movements in space {where?) are expressed by the verbs
nam, fa, for motions m, through a place, along, opposite to an object;
twa for motion across (a river, way &c.); with mu: athwart;
twa (ho) hyia or si, for motions around, round about an object;
tra, for motions over and beyond an object. — Cf. § 109, 30. 31. 223.

2. Relations of time.

a. wo, 6, f i, c. besi, kosi, bedu, kodu, are also employed to indi-
cate relations of time, answering to the questions a. when? b, since
whm? c, till or until when? — Cf. § 227, 2. 229.

3. Relations of manner, degree, instrumentality/, also accompaniment
and exchision.

a, wo may introduce an expression showing manner by the postposi-
tions so, a n o, = agreeing with, according to,

b, se, to be like, indicates equality or similarity by comparison; as, like,

c, boro, kyen, sen, to surpass, excell, expresses the prep, above =
more than. Cf. § 269. 271 .

rf.de, fa, introduce the material, instrument, means, accompanyimf
object, when in Engl, the prepp. of, by, tvith, are used; § 108, 26. 29.

e. nam.. so, fa.. so, are also used for by, by means of, showing the
tcay or mediation of action; § 108, 27.

f. fra, to mix J serves for the prep, among; § 237 c.

f/« gy®, to accept^ answers also to the Engl, prep, except, save, but;
cf. Rem. 1.2. § 1 33. 23.0 b.

A. kwati, kwae, gy aw, siane, to omit, leave aside, pass by, ans-
wer to the prep, tcithout; § 237 b.

4. Relations of cause, concern, aim, intention, purpose.

tt. wo may introduce expressions showing cause and reference to, by
the postpositions nti, so, ho, = the prepositions for the sake of,
tou'jhing, concerning, about; § 200, 3. 201, 2.

ft. ma, to give, answers to the prepp. for, in behalf of , on account of;
fa, to take, answers to /br, when a person does or makes some-
thing for himself; komft, here, to bring, m^na, to send by oppor-
tunity, answer to the prepositions for, to, in connection with verbs
implying an intended communication. Cf. §206,3. 243 &.

76 KTYMOLOOY. §117.

c. ma, to ffif*e, jryo, io receive, sesa, to exclMH(fe^ answer to for, in-

stead of\ used in buying or selUivj or ecshanpe: §237&.

si or liye ananmu, to step or put in the foot-mark, answer to

instead of in the place of; § 237 h.
d t i a, to ki'jk, liye, to fix upon, gu (so), to cast upon, express: a-

f/ainst (a person); § 243 h.
f. sie, to reposit, preserve, expresses: for, against (an event); adv.

prerioiisly; § 243 />.

llcin. 1. Most of these prepositional verbs are conjugated, i. e. they
assume pronominal and negative prefixes, and the prefixes and suffixes
of tluj tenses and moods ; tliey are, tlierefore, to be treated as verbs,
and are mentioned liere only for the sake of comparison with tlic
Knglish prepositions. Yet the verbs wo, se, and gye (except), have
so far stripjjed off their verbal character and have become mere par-
ticles, as they do not assume any prefixes, not even the pronominal
prefix me, nor the negative prefix, except when they are used, not
as prepositional or auxiliary verbs or particles, but as principal verbs.
('1 he negative of w g is then replaced by that of d i.) This use of
wo and se without any inflexion may, in literal translation, be indi-
cated by the Engl, participle; e. g.

Wan ye fwe wg Osii, he has not done thtnithinq {heinp) at OsiL

^leye adwiima se gno, 1 do work equalling him, i.e. like him.

Obi n'ni fie, gyc mena, nohody is at home, except my mother.

Mintie ob^, gyc mMgya, I listen to none hut (except) my father.

Item. 2. The particles se and gyo, or both united, may also bo
considered as conjunctions, and the word governed by them as tho
subject or object of an elliptical sentence; e.g.

<_)nye advNiima se me, he does not (do) work t^ me, = se me-

ye, as I do.
O n no m f w e s e n s u n k 6 [n a g n o mj, he drinks nothing hut (only)

water [he drinks].
O b f j\ m m a, s e ^yG li n i p a ban I'l p e [supply : n a c b a e], nohody

came except only two men [came\
M anil II obf, se gye nnipa bAnii n o [supply : namih6i\ wgnj,

1 saw nohody, except [that I saw] those two persons.

In other cases wo reckon gye simply among the adverhs;G.g.

(rye Onyame (nk6) nh. onim, only God knows (it).
(This is in fact only another kind of ellipsis, a previous thought **Obi
nnim, nohody knows'^ being left out.)

II. Th(» postpositions are the nouns of place and relation specified
and explained in § 118-122. They express the English prepositions
a. hy themselves, when the reference of a thing or action to the place (or

time &c ) of another thing is implied in tlie verb or in the attrihutive

position of the postposition, or when it is plain from other reasons;
h, together with an auxiliary or prepositional verb, of those mentioned

under A, when that reference is not included in the principal verb.

§118. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 77

a. Os^kan bi da poh no so, a knife is If/inf on that t<ihle.
Fa op on n« so sekdh no, take the knife [I hat lies] on that table I
Ohene Herode here so no wgwoo Ycsu, Jesus iras horn in
the time of king Herod.

h. Miliuu sekaii no wg pon no so, I saw the knife on the lahle.

Otow' sekdn no kyonee abrtinna so, he flanrf the knife tipon

the (jailer y ; (the verb tow does not imply a direction to a place;

tliis direction, therefore, is indicated by tbe anxiliary kyone.)

('. 'J'he ('onhmction ne, originally equal to the verh de (§ i;)9), is

often nsed for the Engl, preposition with., denoting aenonfpaninivii',

sometimes also for: on account of.

Me ne no bae, / came nnth him. Ye-ne won kge, ive went i villi (hem.

Om/iuyen mo ne ko, he (jave us ^haill'' and fight in j, i.e. he e.c-

prrssed his congratulation on account of our successful fighling.

II. NOUNS OF PLACE AND BEL ATI ON

serving as Adverhs (tnd Postpositions.

I18« 'lb« chief nouns of place and relation (which are also iVe-
ijuently nsed in composition, like most of tlie original prepositions in
English) are the following eight :

eso (gsoro), ase, emn, eho, ano, ani, anim. akyi (akyiri).
Their manifold meanings and uses, also as names oC things, may b(^
arranged thus: — 'I'hey denote:

1. A place which is at the same time a part of a thing; — tlien
tliey are simply to be considered as names of things.

Pom a no ase abu, the under part or pie^e of the stirk is hroken.

2. A place without relation to a particular tiling, thougli witli re-
ference to the general space in which we live, to the nnivei'se or to
the upright human body (- indefinite relation). Then they are nouns
of plare, which are frequently used as adverbs.

O'te ase, he lives^ exists (on the ground or earth).
Tr^ ase! sit down! Wafw e ase, he has fallen down, to the ground.
Me da (no) ase, 1 lie down (to or for him, in his heh(df),
i. e. I thank (him).

3. A place with reference to a thing, a place contiguous to a cer-
tain thing (or person) that is (usually) mentioned before it in th(^
position of an attribute in the possessive case. Sometimes time or
other relation is expressed by the same word; see §129, 1-5. 121,2.
In this case we call such a noun of place a postposition or a noun
of rdation, because it shows the relation of another thing, or of its
action or state, to the thing to which the postposition is added.

OgnAii bi da du^l no ase, a sheep lies under that tree. (The post-
poMtion ase shows the relation of the sheep, or its lying, to that free.)

78 ETYMOLOGY. § 119.

When the noun, to which the postposition refors, is mentioned before,

it is replaced by a pronoun ; e. g.

Akokotan no butuw ne mmd so; won nhtna hye n'«se,
that lien sits over Iter chickens; they all are under her.

But when it is an inanimate thing, the pronoun is omitted and the

noun of relation stands absolute, though the reference to that certain

thing is understood ; e. g.

OhQii dujl bi, na gkgdda Ase, he saw some tree and went to

lie under (it).

4. Those nouns may also, by a kind of ellipsis, denote, in a collec-
tive manner, the things contained in a jda^e, as described under 3.
In this case they may be considered as collective names of thin'js.

Wgtas^tase dud no ase (sciL n nee ma),

they (father (the things) under that tree,
Akokg no ase af^e, that hen^s posterity has increased.

5. From the meanings given under 1-1, others may be derived, which

make such nouns equal to other nouns of things, concn'te or abstract.

Ky^reme as^m no ase, slwn? me the meanimj (sense) of that word.
M'dkwdntu ase ni, this is the reason for my journey.
M^tra mu makodii ase, 1 shall endure unto the end.

119* We now give the meanings of the above mentioned 8 nouns

of place and relation (§118), 1. as parts of things, 2. as parts of

space, 3. as postpositions, translating these by the Engl, prepositions

and adding the Engl, adverbs.

eso, gsoro: i. ^fe^ upper part; 2. the upper parts^ the space ahore*^
(gsoro, heaven;) S. on, up, over, upon, above, upward, on high;
used of time : in, at, during ; of other relations : Ofi, at, concerniwu
in, from, tvith.

ase: 1. the nether or lower part or end (or beginning)'. 2. the nether
or lower parts, the tvay down; 8. down, under, below, beneath,
downward; of time: in, at, tinder, during.

emu, the interior: 1. the inner or middle part, inside (also the middle
part of the human body, and of an expanded surface &c. any
point within the circumference; 2. the inner parts, the space tcilhin
or inside; 3. in, at, into, through, iviihin, inward, inside; of time:
in, at, during; of a plurality of things: among, amongst, under;
in connection with certain verbs (as fi, to proceed from): out, from.

eh 6, the exterior: 1. the outer or outward part, outside, (also the
human frame, the whole body, the ivhole person, cf. § 33 Rem.
§ 57. 217, 1. 218, la. 2. the otdward parts, the space without or
outside, nearness, lyroximity ; 8. at, by, near, sidewards, about,
around; of other relations: at, about, touching, concerning.

a n o : 1. the edge, brink, brim, tip, utmost end, margin ; also the mouth,
esp. the lips as the borders of its opening, and tlhe hill of a bird,

§ 1 30. THE PABT8 OF SPeIICH. 79

alio a Aaop or number of things (btitng defined by a mar^n or end);
JS. the space along or at the utmost Mtf ; 5. o», at, along; of other
relatibns: according to,

ani: 1. the face (also the human face, ed^ec. t1^ eye), the surface;
2,t}te space above a surface; 3. ofi^ upon, over, above.

ani m' : i the face (also tJ^e human face), Oie front, frontside, forepart;

2, the spa^e in sight, in front of, before;

3. before, forwards, on, omvard(s),

akyi, akytrt (Ak. akyire): 1. the back ($kyi, the back of t%e human
body), the back part, hind part, also \he outside of h^llo^ vessels;

2. the space behind or outside {oihoWo^ vessels and enclosed spaces) ;
akyfri, akyirikyiri, remote distance;

3. beJ^nd, outside, without; op6h akyi, before i. e. outside the
door ; backwards ; far off, far awdy; of time : after, afterwards,
Cf. § $3 Rem.

Hem, The tone of so, mn, and of the stem of a no, akyi, is low^
as often as these four words are joined to a pronoun in the possessive
case ending with high tone ; in other dases the tone is high, and that
of the pre^ low.

The 2one of ho and of the stem of as^, ani, is high, whether that
of the preceding syllable be high or low; when high, the prefix a- is
high likewise. When ase is not a postposition, it has sometimes low
tone, e.g. in te ase, to live, da ase, io thank.

120* 1* The words eso, emu, eh 5, retain their prefix almost
only at the beginning of a sentence, separated from a preceding sen-
tence or clause of a sentence, and the prefix may be taken as a sub-
stitute for the pronoun which is left otit when referring to a thing,
not a person.

2. The word m u very easily drops its u, and is then written together
with the preceding word, usually with an apostrophe; but the tone of
this m' is always in contrast to that of the syllable which it has
joined, e. g. ^pom', ns4m\ Cf. § 1 1 9 JRei^.

3. Osoro is used when it does not refer to a special thing, but to
space in general.

4* Akyiri is used for akyi, when it stands without a possessive
before it, 0. g. when a pronoun, referring to a thing, is omitted.

Qkw&n k 6nam s6 no, ^s6 y^ tr6trd, the tcay on which he walks,
it (its upper part) is smooth; or:

eini& ay^ pitoropatoro, it has become slippery.
^ Qfw^ Qs6Tb, he looks up, upwards.
I Otwam* (=6 twit mii), he ciUs (or pursues a line lying in) the
I middle (part of the space in which we live) i. e. he passes by.

I (The CMi^onnd verbs tSem', to cry oui, bom* = bg m u, /o cry, roar,
I mmierf must in a similar way be explained as the straightforward
1 |0Mtrating of the spaee by the voice or other sounds.)

80 ETYMOLOGY.: .^122.

Osiim' kge, he departed ==Osii kwdii niu (ojr: kwAu s6) k6e,
he stepped in (or on) the way, he set out, started. • " <

Odi'in yi anim' y6 f'e; akyiri de, cnto s^V, ^ ■, f

the front-side of this house is fine;- the hanh-side- is not so..

<) g y i n a ak y { r i k y i r i, he stands in a remote distance, fkr away.

121* 1- One noun of relation or postposition, viz. >Rti, is <»X€k-
sively nsed to indicate muse. It seems to be related to cti, Ak
etiri, head, jii\d originally to signify the vpper e/id as. tbe place or
source from wliicli ati action proceeds. • \.-

It has nonns qr pronouns (or even sentences^ § 255, j6^) as 'defining

attributes in tlie possessive case before it. (§240. 243, «.>; i/^ jiol, w(t

write enti = CMio nti. Of. §120,1. 140. 252,/;. ' ' ■■' '.'•

Nitan nti wokum' no, out of enn/ the;/ killed hint,' . ;'/
XsaiV nti oyare, throwih' contajfion he is si k
S i k A at i n ji ode li y e d k iV a k o a ,

on account of rnone}/ a freeman heomes a si ire. '*-

Eno nti, eyi nti, therefore, for this reason; edenntiV vhy?^

'^J'bis ])ostposition, witli its possessive case before it, usually precedes

tlie subject and vejb of \\\v sentence, and is often followed by tlic

conjunction n a. \Vlien it stands at the end, the vowel ^a* is added.

In Akan it is also used without tlie prefix, and before the fiiml ^n'

tlie letter r is inserted.

E d e II n t i a ( Ak. s e n' t i r a) ? irhtf ? D e n 't i n a w o k o ? why do )f04 tfo?

2. The postpositional so and ho arc filso used to express i^iuae.'
( It § 240, a, 243, ri. Rem. 1,

Ye da no n'Ayamye so ase, vre thank him for his kin-dnesss, '
M a t n a n o n e b o n e s o k a w, I ha^^c rewarded him for his aril de^'d.
O'sfi nenuA ho, he weeps on a-''Ount of his brother.,

122. Other nonns of place, frequently serving as postpositions
(and adverbs), are the following:
atifi: 1. the top (of the human head, of. a bouse, mountain);' i

2. the plane above.

o.W: 1. the head, the upmost part; 2. the chief plaee.

mfinfmfini, the midst, the centre of a thing or place.' ' .

iikyen, nky6hmu, the side-part; the place by the side of n timnj.

O k o n e n k y ^ h, 7*e (fOes to him. O t e n e ii k y v n, he lives with Viw.
Ofi ne nkyen ko, he goes away from him.

(nsa) nifi1, nifa so, on the right hand or sidei

(lis a) benkum, benkum so, on the left hand or side, ,

a g y a, the part beyond ; a.g y a - n o h o (or -n o h 6 a), beyond i .

a b on ten no agya, the other side of the street;. . ^ / ,

asuogyjl, the other side of the- river; . -.a..

ay a liny a, the backside of the human body (lit. ijf the bdly).

i

§ 123. 124. THE PAHTS OF SPEECH. 8l

ntdm', the space between; between, betwixt.
ntent^ns6, the place opposite; over against
nsr^ns6, the place at a distance', aloof.
an an mil, in the feet i. e. footsteps; instead of

III. OTHER NOUNS, PBONOUNS AND ADVERBS OF PLACE.

133* 1. Of the names of the different members or parts of the
human body^ we have had some among the nouns of place *and re-
lation "*(§ 119. 122), viz. emu, eho, ano, ani, anim, akyi, atifi,
eti, nkyen, nifa, benkum. But some of these and other such names
are considered as things having their own dimensions, and may be
combined or compounded with mu, so, and other postpositions; e.'g.

ti s6, tfri so, tirim'; anim'; as6m*; an6m';
es^m' {the inner substance of the teeth, but also the space of the
mouth inside the teeth) \ es^ akyi {the outside of the teeth, revealed
by withdrawing the lips); k6hmu; nky^n mill, mf^m'; ydm';nsam\
nsdyam' (the palm of the hand), nsAakyi {the back of the hand),
nsd an6, nsdtea ano.

Some such names are only used as compounds, as if they were

mere places:

mpampam', momas6; atas6, dodom', mmotoam',
ykm, aydase, ayannya.

2. Others are named as things, but may be treated as places, with-
out assuming the postposition mu or so; e. g.

Ode b6 ioh nemmdti, he put a stone (on) his shoulder,
Oyar^ ne sfe, nek5md, n^ mm^reb6,

he is sick (concerning or in) his teeth, his heart, his liver.
Oso nensd, he seizes his hand, holds him by the hand.
Otim* no aiAenewa, he took him {by) the throat.

124:* 1. The following names of things also in a direct way de-
note a place, without having a noun of place added to them:

ofi, ofie, a dwelling, home; akura, a village; sukta, school;
adi, adfwo, adlwo ho, the space outside the room, yard.

Bera m^fi! come (into) my house! Cf. Bera m^ ddn mu! come
into my room! — Wdbli ofie, he has come home; but: Wahy^n
ofi bim', he has entered some dwelling. — Ote adlwo ho, Mat
26,69,; but: ogyina abannud no sh. Ester 6,5. — Okg akura',
he went to the plantation-village; but: Oko n'dfiiw mu, he went
into his plantation. — Ofi suku bafe, he came from school; but:
Oko sukuddn mu, he goes into the school-house (not for the pur-
pose of learning). I

2. Proper names of countries ami towns want no postposition; some,

however, are used or compounded with mu, so, ase, kurora' (=,ku-

row mu); e. g.

6

82 ETYMOLOGY. § 126.

Ofil AbrokyIr^ba^ Abfbirim\ he came from Europe to Africa,
Ofi Nkran fdiii Krobo n^ Akwam' koo Hiiam', ans^nk oB&h
faa Aky^m kgg Asantc, na ofi Kumase fa4 Pri,86 hkk Ogua,
he went from Ahra through Kroho and Ahvam to Krepe, then he
returned and tvent hy way of Akem to Asante, and from Kumase
(he tvent) hy Praso to Cape Coast. Ote Denji, he lives at Elmina,
Mereko Adukurom', 1 am going to Adiikrom.

3. Nouns compounded ivith a noun of place, though they may partly
be considered as names of things, cannot well assume a new post-
position of place; e. g.

w i a 8 e, ^fee world; a f i a s e, a cellar, store, prison ; m p o a n 6, the seashore;
fam' = fd mu, in the ground, usually: on the ground, at the bottom,
Oda afiase, %6 lies in prison. Cf. Oda dudm', he lies fastened to a block.
But: Oko aguaasem' = oko guam\ he goes into the assembly, council.

1I35* Mere names of place (not at the same time names of relation
or of things) are:

1. ba, baw, bea, bew, here, amere; all these signify a place, but
are (with the exception of baw) only used with some addition, as:
babi, Ak. beabi, pi. mmea-mm^d, mmii nh!:na, amer^(k), §60,3,
or in composition with verbs, as: gyinabea, trab^re, ddbere,
dabew, a place to stand, sit, lie (there).

Adeyi, mihhdnetobew, 1 know not tvhere to lay this tiling.

2. of a, (the one) side (also meaning the half or part of a thing), and

a fa, a separate, unoccupied part of some space.*

Wgkg6 b^pow bi so fd b^bi, they went on a mountain apart.
Oda afd, he sleeps on the other side (of the room).
Minnim f^k6 k gwo, I don't knotv {the place) where he is,
Wgnam afasa kg5 kurow no mu,
they tvent into the town from three sides.

3. Nouns derived from verbs by the palatal suffix (§ 36, 4).

adidii, eating-place; ote adidii, he sits at table;

anome, drinking-place; aguaree, tvashing-place ;

akoe, a field of battle; anisief, burial-place; asutware6, a ford;

mmehe, mmenkyene, nearness, neighbourhood,

4. All these nouns of place do not take postpositions of place, with
the exception of here, when it means time, see §129,1., and fa,
which is often compounded with m' = mu.

Owg me fam', he is on my side, belongs to my party.

5. The four chief points of the compass have the following names:

apuei, apuei-fam', anim-fam\ (anafo, boka), ea^t;
atge, atge-fam\ akyiri-fam\ (atifi, anai), tvest;
kese-fam\ nif^-fam\ (epom'), south;
kdsu-fdm', benkiim-fam', (eh am', kwaem'), north.

Rem. The names in parenthesis do well for the Gold Coast, but
cannot be applied to other countries and parts of the globe.

) 126-129. THE PARTS OB* SI^EECH. 63

128* Nouns of action may be used like nouns of places. As ko

18 u means to go to the water (place), to go for water, so some other

3hrases have been formed, as:

ko anydh (Ak. F. ko nnyina), to go for ivood, fuel]
ko asikd, to go for digging and washing gold.

These seem to be exceptional formations. But more frequently we

&nd an infinitive, often with its object before it, or compounded with

It into one word, as a complement of place. See § 280, 2.

0'k6 adidi, aguar^, asore, he goes to dinner, to take a hath, to
prayer (or to church). Ok go aduan'-t6, he went to buy food,

127» Instead of nouns of place, the pronouns ehe, ha, ho Slc^
(§ 60,3) may be used. We must add to them:

n6h6, nohoa (noholl), the place beyond, behind.

The pronouns ha and ho are often added to nouns of place in

apposition, or just as no or yi is added to names of persons and

things; yet no or yi may be added besides.

Owg turom' ho, he is in that garden,

Yete ddn(yi) mu hd yi, we dwell in this house here,

OkoNnonkom'nohg ioi\ii,he went far into the inland cotmtries,

128* As a proper adverb of place, not derived from nouns or

pronouns, but from a verb with a postposition, we have to mention:

fah6f^h6, in the expression: W6fa fah6f^h6, they sail (arrow)
along the shore ', whilst Wo fa ano^no means: they tvalk (or ride,
drive) along the shore (by land).

IV. NOUNS AND ADVERBS OF TIME.

129* Nouns of time, used in answer to the question when? ddb^ii?,

either have postpositions, or they have none.

il. For the entirely abstract notion of time in general, as in '^Time

fUes^, there is no proper word; all expressions are somehow definite.

Eb^re, time (cf. § 125) wants a definition by an attributive word

or sentence, and can take the postposition so (or mu).
Adagy^w, leisure, can have mu after it.

Oh^ne no b^re so, in the time of that king,
Eb^re k Kolombo koh6tl Amerika no mu,

at the time in tvhich Columbus discovered America,
M*adigyewmu adwiima ni, this is a work of my leisure-time,

1 Nouns expressive of the ages of human life are :

Bkok6abere, babyhood', mm ^rantob^re, mmababere, youth;
ttkwakorab^rc, mmerewabere, old age\
W tbey may have mu after them; but

64: ^ETYMOLOGY- § ^^Q*

3. Afe, afrihyid, year, gsram', obos6m\ month, and the native
and European proper names of the months, also eda, day, may
have mu or so after them; but not so the proper names of the days
of the week, § 41, 4.

4. The nouns for the seasons of the year usually take mu after them.

op6(b6re), ofiip^, apenimma, Qpep6ri, the harmattan and its
divisions, 4susow(b^re), adom (ad6mm^re, adommtirow'),
the rainy seasons. [F e f e w - b e r e, spring ; ah 6 h u r u b e r e, summei",
awowbere, winter.] Exception: mj^eno a., autumn, or rather (Ak.)
the end of the harmattan,

5. Dap^n, week, takes mu after it.

6. The following nouns for the different times of the day (partly com-
bined with adjectives) are mostly used without postpositions:

adekye^ n^ adesae; akokgboii^, ah^ma, ahemadaky^;
anopah^ma, anopatiitu, adekye^, awiapuel, anopd^ awid,
owigyina^, awia k^te, betwab^re, mfaretiib^re, anwum-
mebdwmu, anwumm^re, awiatg^, anadwof^, anadwof^
fomm, adesa6, anadw6, odasii konkon, gdasiiro\

Likewise the words for the twelve hours: d5nk6ro... §80,4.

7. Other nouns of time are formed by the palatal suffix (§36,5.) or

by composition with here, ase, akyiri; e. g.

adidii, ndidih^re, meal-time; ad idii ase mpae, ^ray^rs a^7wea&;
adidiikyiri asedd, thanksgiving after meals.

130. Other expressions of time are the following nouns, nouns
with additions^ proper adverbs and particles:

1. For the present time:

en^, nn^(=eddyi), m^ren, to-day ; en^dayi(ara)s6, this vei'y day',
nnansd yi, nnk yi mu, in these days; Af^i, twiv; \

sese' (sfese, when at the end), just noiv, this mom&nt', [at once; |
seseiara, mpren, mpr^mpren(ara), pr^ko, immediately, forthivith, f

2. For the past time: ,

'n6ra (mispronounced: 'nara, 'ngra, = ene da), yesterday. ^

^n^-nnkns^, 'ne-nnannan, ...'ne-dadu, three, four,. ..ten days ago. ■.
nnansd ni k..., it is three days since...', afeddn ni, a year ago;
nnAno, nnAno hi, the other day; da bi, once, one day;
dabihg, formerly; eh6bere no, then, at that time;
t^te, t^tebeme, tete-nt^r^de', ancieyitly, of old;
d^daw, dedadedaw, already, long ago.

3. For the future time:

g ky 6 n a (g k <1 n a), to morrotv ; gky 6 n a k y i, the day after to-morrow\ 1
gky^na bi, daky6 bi, some day to come, some time, hereafter; |
da se 'n6 (Kwasi, Dwo, ...) this day week (on Sunday, Monaay)\ t
afedaii s^se, a year hence.

§ 131. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 85

4. For an indefinite time:

pen, once'^ da, dkbi, dabiara, dabiarada, d^k6ro bi, some

day, one day, one time, any day, ever, after a negative verb : never ;

6t6-dabi-^, sometimes', (lit. it falls i.e. happens some day that),

5. For succession (and simultaneousness) :

prekc, at the same time, at once; cf. 1.

ntem, nt^mara, (quickly, §131,3), soon ;

am6nom^ (h6)ara, on the spot',

kan, ekan no, (at) first, formerly; kdn ^nsS, beforehand \

kdnkyerekyere, first of all, at the very first]

ntam* (iio)i ^^ l^^ mean time;

[enn^ (en6 n^), then; ansd-n4, whereupon; these are conjunctions];

akyi (postposition of nouns), after; akyiri, behind, afterwards;

the time after; en6 akyi, eyi akyi, akyiri no, akyiri yi, san-

kyiri yi, after that, hereafter, afterwards.

6. For repetition:

mp^n ah6? how often? see §81; bio (biow, Ak. biem'), again',
nnd nnd, nn^koro-nn^kor o, on single days; d^, often;
dd nn^awotwe, dd sram', di af^, every week, month, year,

7. For duration:

nn4 ah6? how many days? how long? d^koro &c. § 80,5.6.
dd (F. dab a), d^yi, dap em, da da, always, continually, eternally.
dabid^bi, a long time; ara, on and on, continually, continuously.

V. NOUNS AND AJDYEBBS OF MANNER AND BEGBEE.

1. Nouns, singly or tvith postpositions.
ISl* Nouns of quality without postpositions, but more frequently
wich or other (also personal) nouns together tvith the postpositions
mn or so, may denote manner in an adverbial way.
1. Abstract nouns added to the verbs se, to T)e equal, kyen or sen,
to surpass, showing the manner or concern in which a subject equals
or surpasses an object, see § 235 c. Concrete nouns, used adverbially
! to show the means of an action, see § 237 a.

; 2. Some nouns are not or scarcely used otherwise than in an adver-
bial way; e. g.

abia, to one's aid or assistance;

abird, the wrong ivay, turned the other tvay.

Meyeno adwumaabia, J work for him in the way of helping him.
Miso no muabia, I set my hand to it assisting him,
W4hy^ n'dtade ^bira, h^ has put on his garment the tvrong tvay.
Wdb6 (or wdkll) as^m no ^bird, he has reversed the matter (in

[stating it), altered it to the contrary.
T^dino adanndn or nnyigy^, tve do it alternately, by turns.
Bern, In bo abira, di adannan, di nnyigyo, the nouns may
called specific complements of the verbs bo, di; on the other hand,

86 ETYMOLOGY. §132.133.,

many nouns, appearing as complements of verbs in specific verbal
phrases (§210), may be considered as adverbs of manner.

bg piriw (bo pirim), bo mpunimpd, to startle;
bo bum, bg twi, bg wi, to start, be alarmed;
tg beraw, tg dobosa, tg piti, to faint or swoon
(from exhaustion, sunstroke, hunger),

3. The noun ntem, quickness* is used as an adverb either singly or

doubled, or (as ghare, lightness, swiftness) compounded with so.

B^ra nt6m ! come quieklyl Oba^ nt^mnt^m, he came very quich
Wgbdano nt^mso, they came with haste. Luk.2,16.
Oye n'dd6 nhina ghdreso, he does all his things stmftly.

*Cf. Akyekyer^ sfe: ntem ye na ggom ye,
the tortoise says : quickness is good and slowliness is good. (Prov.)

4. Other nouns compounded with so or mu, sometimes also ase, ano,

to express manner, are the following :

kwanso-kwdnso, akwdns6-akwdns6, orderly, properly;
aberdnso, akakab^nso, akokob{ris6, violently;
anibianndsoso, asobianndsoso, carelessly;
mp^sompaso, mpdase, mpofirim', unawares, unexpectedly;
mmarimdm', mmarimdso, in a manly ivay, manfuUy;
nnipam\ after the manner of men; ony^m^mu, in a godly wap;
brgf6m\ brgfo nsa ano, after the fashion of the Europeans.
Ok^lk as^m no kbufiiw so, he spoke that word in anger,

2. Proper Adverbs of Manner,
derivative (from pronouns, adjectives, verbs), primitive, or compound.
13I3. Proper adverbs, besides the nominal adverbs in § 131, show

1. manner, in a demonstrative or descriptive way (the former by com-
parison, the latter by naming a quality);

2. degree, or quantity, intensity and extent;

3. certainty and uncertainty, affirmation and negation.
133. 1. Adverbs of a pronominal character, showing fnanner of

an action or state in a demonstrative way or implying comparison,

are the following: f

sa, sa, se (=sa yi), se (=sc cyi), so, thus; saara, just so. \

Ete sa, so it is. Wgyeno se! it is done thus! \

E t e s *i a r a, it is just so, still so, always the same. -

Mente^ asem k 6te sb! p6n, / never heard such a thing.

2. An adverb showing degree in a similar way is ^

sij (=se biribi) very, very much. \

Ey6 se, it is very good. Oye h6 se, he is very cowardly. ^

3. Adjectives denoting quality and Hnde finite quantity are frequently j-
used as adverbs of manner (a) and degree (b), either in eqnal form J
with the adjective, or, when several forms exist, in a reduplicated,]
sometimes in the simple form. Cf. § 67-70.

§ 134. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 87

E.g. nya\ slowly; te\ straightway; komm, quietly; b6n6, badly;
jiye, pd, pdpa, papapa, well, very well, much;
kese, dennen, bebre, pi, d6(io, very, much, very much;
kakrd, kakrdbi, kakras6, ketewabi, a little, very little.

«. Onam uya, ftc ivalks slowly. Oda ho komm, 7ie lies there quietly.
Dud no asi fromm, that tree is in a flourishing state,
Okasd krohkron, he speaks with purity.
Ote yiyQj he is tvell. Minim no yij6^ I hnow him well.
Mikyidno pdpapa, I greet him most heartily,

6. Mframd bo kes^, the wind hloivs vehemently.
Op r anna bom' denn^n, the thunder rolls loud.
Osuro bebre, bebreb6, pi, d6do, he is very much (ox too much)

afraid,

4. Adjectives denoting a certain quality are added as adverbs of

intensity to verbs expressing the same quality ; e. g.

Esd kokiiro, it is very large; eye papa, it is very good;
eb^re ko, ebiri tumm, eho4 fita, dky^n ky^nkyeren,

it is very" red, -blach, -white, -hard or stiff;
ihhxi kankah, it stinks very much,

134» 1. Proper descriptive adverbs, mostly primitives, not (or only

seldom) used as adjectives, but showing quality (or degree) like those

in § 133, 3., are found in the following sentences :

O'fw^ no do (or ha, =dlnn, komm), he looks at him staringly.

M'ani tuiia no f^iin, my eye discerned him distinctly.

Emii da ho fe, it lies open and plain (before us).

Ed a nsii ase fe, it lies deep under the water.

Wdhy^ no ke'tc (kyenkyenkyen), he has commanded him strictly.

Aw id aft kete (ketekete), the sun has come out shining brightly.

Nkurofo no aboabba wonh6 ano pep6, pitipiti,

the people are gathered thick together, Luk, 11, 29.
Wgfw66no pitipiti, they flogged him much,
O'y^ n^dd^ b^sabasa, b^sibasa, s^kasaka, s^sasesa, potoro-

p6 tor 6, fee does his things in a disordely, confused manner,

2. Imitative adverbs show the manner of an action by describing

tibe effect as a particular noise or other impression on the senses,

' Ob 66 me bam (b dm bam), he gave me a lash (some lashes),
\ Efweefdm'arabam, 2^ fell to the ground tvith a clap.
Qfwe^ ase brim, fee fell down plump,
O'si pim (pim pim), he steps firmly, takes firm steps,
Oilk ikxrC tw^m twem twem, fee treads on the ground strongly,
Ohuriiw' tw^n twen, or, f^n fen, he jumps about nimbly.
NsA sh ko(ko), water drops audibly,
Aduan' no huru kiitukiitu, the food boils lustily,
Anomd nop^re kitikiti, putuputu, the bird struggles desperately ,
Ogya d^w frdf ra, friimframfram, kitikiti, kyirikyirikyir i,

Ae fire burns brightly.
Did 6 no ad6 sr^msrftm, sriLnsran, the iron is red-hot.

88 ETYMOLOGY. § 134.

3. Proper adverhs of degree or extent (primitives, derivatives and
compounds) show the extent of an action or state in various ways:

a. Adverbs limiting the action to itself or to some subject or object

(excluding others) are the following:

n k 0, n k u 1 6, n k u t o - k 5 r ^, onlj/y (done ; d r a, jitst, even^ merely ;
kwa, teta, hunu, Ak. hun, F. gyan, gyennyan, merely^ 8My\
t6ta ara kwti, without any thing else*

Mmofra nk5 na 4wui, children only died,

Mdtuno f6 hko, I have only admonished him,

W4m^ me nsii teta, he gave me only ivater.

Wodgy^w me nkiito-kor^, I have been left quite alone.

h. Adverbs stating addition (inclusion) and prominency or exclusion

(with regard to other actions or subjects or objects that might come

into consideration) are the following:

nso (nsoso), bi, nso bi, besides^ likewise \ also, too;

mpo, po, even; mmom, rather,^ much more;

de, taken apart, concerning;

tftiriw, especially, chiefly (adj. fr. ti, tiri, head).

O'dl hid^ na oyar^ nso, he is poor, and sick too.
M6 nso, m^ko bl, I also, I shall go likewise.
Fre on6 nso bl, call him also.
Wabfsa ohene po, he has even asked the king.
M6nu4 po ahhdmfe, even my brother has not known me.
Eyl mm 6m' ny6, this is all the worse.
M6 d^, m^kg, as for me, I shall go.
Mmofrd nk oyare no kum won titlriw,
children especially die of that sickness.

The following adverbs are derived from verbs:

gye, except, save, but] wants a complement after it. § 117 JRe/w. 2356.

Gy6 obiirbnf na obetdmi ay^, only a European could do{il),
(en 6) gydbaw, leaving (that) aside; notwithstanding, nevertheless; i
(eyi hhlnd) nkamfiiaw, beside (all this); these two words want ^

a complement before them. §2^2.237 c. Luk.16, 26. 2

^nkctnkd, nkdnt6m' (akantom se), to say nothing of, not U> r
mention (that..); these two words want a complement after them, ^
which forms part of a sentence that follows or is to be supplied. '

Mmofra yi ye mmofra bon6, na ^hk^hk^ nk oyi d6 (6ny6), ;
these children are (all) bad, but especially this one (is not gobd). I

Nkran h6no aso nte^, na hk^ntom Biir^ni, the king of AkraX
ivas not apprized of it, much less the European (governor). |

Item. The adverbs under a. b, may be called distinguishing adverbs; ^
cf. § 75. -

c. Adverbs extending the action to an indefinite or a more or less ^

definite degree or number, or to completeness,

dra*, on and on, by degrees;

ara, continually, continuously, uninterruptedly ; •;

I

§ 136-138. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 89

4ra g{y)hhu, pretty much; prdnn, (plainly J pretty much.-
p^*, p^pe, exactly, completely \ p^se^y perfectly;

Warn a rac dare du pe, he gave me exactly or only ten dollars.
kora (=kwa ara), entirely , completely, totally, thoroughly,

with neg. verb: (not) at all;
biiruburu, boroboro, tw6m, tw6bo, dw6, entirely, totally &c,
dw^, dw^nn, dw6r6be, completely &c» (of burning, destroying).

*The words dra, pe, p^se, are often joined to other adverbs.

135. Adverbs of certainty or uncertainty {contingency, possibility,
probability).

nokwdr^m', in truth, truly (cf. §131,4\ See also §236.

pi, ampd, truly, indeed; ampaara, verily; ampaniampd, really;
ewom' pi, ete sa' ^mpd, it is quite true;

de, mmom' d6, certainly, indeed, to be sure;

dabl, dabfd^, no, never, by no means. (On these and other par-
ticles of affirmation and negation, see § 146, 3.)

gyimk, Ak. gyam^^, perhaps, possibly ',

ehik, some of it (may be) that, i. e. perhaps, peradventure ;

sese, perhaps (=se se, like this, §133,1. cf. 130,1.);

s^sekwa (bi), perhaps, perchance, by chance.

Gyama wkdk, perhaps he sleeps. Sese wafi ad i, perhaps he
is gone out. Ebi^ oyar^, ebi nso k wawu, perhaps he is sick
or perhaps he is dead. K6bi8i sdsekwa bi na yenfwe, go
and ask at random, that we may see.

VI. NOUNS AND ADVEBBS OF CAUSE.

130* 1. The postpositions nti ('ti, ntia, ntira), so, ho, indicating
cause, see § 121.240.243 a.

2, The adverbs kw^, teta, hunu (hun, gyan, gyennnyafi) § 134,3a,
have also the meaning: ivithout cause, for nothing^ in vain. § 240a.

VII. English Adverbs expressed by Verbs and otherwise.

13T. English adverbs of time expressed by (auxiliary) verbs, see
§ 107, 13. 14.16-22.; adverbs of manner, ditto, § 111. Others are ex-
pressed otherwise; e. g.

Nil nsd d^ k 6ye, eny^ kh6 bi ni(lit. the Nile's water* s sweet-
ness which it has, there is not ^any border is here', i. e.) the water
of the Nile is exceedingly sweet.

M'ani gye k egyei xiyG kdewk (lit. my eye's delighting tvhich
it delighted ivas not a small thing, i. e.) / wa^ highly delighted.

7. CONJUNCTIONS.

13S. Conjimctions are particles, or little words without inflection,
by which words and sentences are joined together. They are either
primitive, or more or less plainly derived from verbs, nouns or pro-
nouns. We divide them into four classes, § 139-142.

90 ETYMOLOGY. § 139-141.

139« (1-) Conjunctions that connect words or single co-ordinate

parts of sentences are the following:

n e, mid, tvith, from the v. d e, to have, hold, possess. i

Me n^ w6 beko (orig. mede w6 beko, 1 taking you shaU go\ \
I and you shall go, I shall go with you,

Wafr^ me nh m6, he has called me and (or together with) you,
c n e is used instead of n h, when a slight pause interrupts the close

connection between the preceding and the subsequent word;

e= the prefixed pronoun of the 3d pers. sing. § 54.
and, ands6, se, or; cf. § 140 JRem.2.
..o, ..0, he it,., or; d,%14oO Rem.3,

Koff ana(se) Y^w h'ko asii, Kofi or Yao shall go for water,
Mmarimd 6, mmea 6, mmofrd 6, w6h hhtna mmSr^,
(be it) men or women or children, they all shall come,

140« (2.) Conjunctions that connect co-ordinate sentences:

na, and, hut, yet; nk, for {=hecause);

(na [sometimes printed in italics: na] with the consecutive form of

the verb: in order that, with the intention to; see § 141, 6);
nso (nsoso), also; hut, hesides, yet, however; moreover;
ndnso, and also, hut also, hut, yet, however, notmthstanding ;
de (a concessive particle at the end of a sentence), with nanso

(following in the next): it is true, take it for granted, but.,',
^nka.., na.., it tvould have been,,, but,,;
eny6..nk6, nan'so (na..nso), not Only,., hut also,.;
en6nti, eyinti, enti, enti n^, na ^nti,

hence, therefore, on that account;
6nes6, that is; so it came that,,;
innk (=en6 na), then, upon that, after that;
en'de (=en6 d6), ^n'de na, then, in that case,

Rem.l, The conj. na has usually loiv tone, but high tone when it
connects imperative sentences. On n^ see §141, 7. After single wordi
at the head of a sentence, n a serves as an emphatic particle, s. § 247.

Rem, 2, The conj. ana at the end of a question, the alternative |
being omitted, serves as an interrogative particle, see § 142. ' _

The conj. anase, or (§ 139), connects also co-ordinate sentences. -
Oyar6 anas6 wdda, he is sick or he sleeps.

Rem, 3, The conj. ..o, ..o, ivhether,., or,,, connects sentences that
are co-ordinate to each other, but subordinate to a succeeding sentence.

Open^. b, ompen^ 6, oy6 n^ m^ye ara,
whether he agree or not, 1 shall do (it) by all means,

141« (3.) Conjunctions that connect subordinate sentences with
principal sentences, are simple or compound, and stand between the'
principal and the subordinate, or the subordinate and the principal
sentence. In the latter case, i. e. when the subordinate sentence comefl
first with a conjunction at the end, others may stand at the same
time at the head of the subordinate or of the principal sentence.

(Examples see after 1-10.) -

§141. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 91

1. The explanatory particle se, thatj whether , if (probably derived
from se, to say; F. de, Ga : ake).

A, When simple, it is used in the following ways:

a. It is joined to a principal ^sentence and, usually after some inci-
sion marked by the falling tone of voice (s6) or even a little pause
(which in longer sentences is indicated by a comma or colon),
connects with it or introduces

a, a noun-sentence that supplies the subject or a complement or an

attribtde in the preceding sentence; § 255, 16. 2. 3&. 4. 66.
/?. an adverbial sentence of manner (extent); so that, §273,16.
y. an adverbial sentence of purpose; that, in order that, §279, 1.

b. It stands at the head of a conditional or concessive sentence (Ga :
ke); §276,3. 278,2.

c. It stands at the head of an adverbial sentence of cause, cf. B,e,

B. It is combined or compounded with other words (verbs);

a. kyere se, (in order to see) whether, if (is rather obsolete, =se ebia).

b. gye se (or se gye), except that.., § 277.

c. kyen se, sen se, more than (that..), § 270,3.

d. efi se, since; § 265, 1.

e. efise, esiane se, or se alone {A, c), with nti or ntia at the
end of an adverbial sentence of cause, which precedes or succeeds
the principal sentence, because; §275,16.2.

f besi se, kosi se, kodu se, kgpem se &c. till, until; §265,2.
(/. kansese, though, even if, § 278, 2. Cf. A, b. [273, 2.

2. The comparative particle se, as (from se, to be like, Ga; tamo),

and combinations with it: te se, asif; senea (se-dea, lit, like that

ivhich), just as (Ga: take, take bgni), introduce

a. a noun-sentence; Iww (relat.); § 255, 1 c. rf. 3 6. 5. § 268, c.
6. an adverbial sentence of place (extent)', as far as; §260.

c. an adverbial sentence of manner or degree, succeeding or preceding
the principal sentence (which in the latter case begins with sa na,
saara na, sa nso na, or has saara at the end); as, just as;

§ 268 a. 6. 270, 2.

d. a member of an abbreviated or elliptical adverbial or adjective sen-
tence, § 248, 6. 269.

3. The relative particle 'a\ always with low tone, connects

a. a succeeding adjective sentence with an antecedent in the principal
sentence; it is, together with a pronoun expressed or understood
in the adj. sent., translated in Engl, by the relative pronouns and
adverbs who (whom, whose,) which, that, where, when &c. § 64. 257.

6. an adverbial sentence of manner, degree, extent, (Engl, so that,)
with a preceding sentence or some part of it; § 273, 1 a.

c. a preceding adverbial sentence of time, § 262, or condition, § 276,
or concession, § 278, with a succeeding principal sentence; in this
ease it has usually a comma after it.

4. The disjunctive particle o is used for *a' in double or manifold
conditional or concessional sentences; § 276,4. 278,3.

92 ETYMOLOGY. § 141

5. The distinguishing adjectives no and yi (§74,2) serve as connec-
ting particles, answering to the Engl, conjunctions when, after, as,

a. The demonstrative particle no is used at the end of adverbial sen-
tences of time with the verb in the continuative, past, progressive
and future forms, § 264, also at the end of an adv. sent of pro-
portion, § 272.

6. The demonstr* part, yi is used in the same cases, with the verb
also in the present and perfect forms; § 263.

c. The particles ara pe, as soon as, may stand with or without no
or yi. § 264, 1. 2.

6. The conjunction na with the verb in the consecutive or impera-
tive form, that he may or shall, might or shoidd, connects an arff.
sentence of purpose with a preceding principal sentence ; § 279, 2.

7. The conjunction na (with high and low tone) indicates simulta-
neousness or concomitance, or emphasis, and is used at the head of
the principal sentence, when the action or state in it coincides with
a state or action in the preceding subordinate sentence; § 262, 2. 276, 2.
It is not translated in English.

8. The particle a n k a, eventually, then, in that case, is put at the
head of the principal sentence after a conditional sentence, the predi-
cate of which is conceived as not real, but only imaginary. § 276, 5.
(cf. § 251 Rem. J2.)

9. The particle ansa, before, combined or compounded with na,
introduces an adverbial sentence of time stating an event subsequent
to that of the principal sentence; § 266, 1. The same particle at the 1
end, together with the conj. na at the head of a sentence joined to an |
antecedent principal sentence, may be translated by till, until] § 266, 2.

1 0. The verb m a serves as a causative particle, = so that, connec-
ting an adverbial sentence of extent, by which an effect or conse-^
quence is stated, with a preceding principal sentence; § 273, 1 c. V

Examples of the use of these conjunctions, with the verbs ba and
ko, one in the subordinate, the other in the principal sentence.
1. A. a. a. Ok66 kokd6 se abofrd no ab^ (or mm§r^),
he went to tell that the boy has come (or shall come).
/?. Ok6^ nt^mt^m se* obi r^mma n'akyi mmetfw* no, he wetU-
very quick, so that nobody will come after him pursuing him.
* or better : k, cf. 3 b.
y. Oko^ s|, osdh b^ a, ode neb a besan &hk, he weflt fhaiin
returning he might bring his child back with him.
Ok6o h6 se nebd mm6rd ho bi,

he went to that place that his son might also come thiO^er.
6. Se w6k6 h6 k, m6ba ho bi, if you go there, I shall come there ta(h
c. Se woko nso a, obi beba, though you may go, another mil come,
B.a,K6 kgfwe kyer^ se (=se ebia) gb^ba,
go and look whether perhaps he will come,
b. Merehk(S gye se woabd knsa,

I shall not go except (or tmiil) you have come first.
C. Ob^kg asdnom mmom' sen se gb(iba ab^ti6 as^m, he wUl
rather go to drink wine (strong drink), than come to listen.

I

141. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 93

?. Efi se oba^ kur6m' ha, onk66 babf da,-

since he came into this town, he never went anywhere.

?. Efise 6hk hd da nti, menta m^hk6 ne f{,

because he often comes hither^ I do not often go to his house.

f. Ob^ko n^knim ara akosi s^ n'adkmfo b^ba ab^liyii n6,
he tvill go omvard until his friend tvill come to meet him.

7. Se 6hk a, m^ko, if (it happens that) he comes, I shall go.
Kansese 6ba a, m^kg ara, though he come, I shall go still.

.a. Mek6 makgfw^ sen^awgdep6nkg no flhy^hmu b^bafdm,
I am going to look how the horse tvill be brought from the ship
to the land.

b, Sen^a Kristosom ab^ter^w nhtnd, wgnk6 nkgs6m ab6s6m

bio, as far as Christianity has spread, they do not serve the
fetishes any more,
e. S6(n6a) yedmfd fwe kmmk wiase no, sa nso nk yeremfd
fwfe hkg (or: se yeremfa fwfenkg n^ii)^ as we have brought
nothing into this tvorld, so we shall also take nothing tvith us
in going.

.a. Onipa k w6wo6no bak wiase yi, ob^fi mu ak6 bi6,
a man that has been born into this world will go out of it again.

6.Wank6 nt^mnt^m a obi rentumi mmd n'akyi mmetlw n6
nt6 no, he did not go so very quick that nobody could come
after him to pursue and overtake him.

c. W6bd ara pe ^, y eb^sim' akg, as soon asyou come, we shall start.
W6hk menky^h a, m6 n^ wo bekg m'&fu.w mix, tvhen (or if)

you come to me, we will go together into my plantation.
Ook mehky^n nso k, merehkg n^fi d^,
though he come to me, 1 shall never go into his house.

L 8e 6bd 6, se gmmd 6, me de, m6kg,

whether he come or not, I for my part shall go.

i.a. Obd^ no, mek6e, when he came, I went away.
I Ak5fo foforo toa so reba abegu mu no, nanso wgrekg
wgnanimakgpamdgmno, ^/ie more new champions came for
! reinforcement, the more they tvent onward, repulsing the enemy.

i.WAbd yi, m^kg, as he has come, 1 shall go.

e.0bd6 ara pe, na mekgfe, as soon as he came, I went away.

Mer^k6 ^n^ n^ gky^ua masdn mabd,

I am going to-day that 1 may come back to-morrow.
K6 na gf6f6ro mmerd! go that another may come!

Qr^bd no (or yi), n^ merek6,
whilst he was (qv is) coming, I tvas (or am) going away.

Be 6hk a, anka m^kg,
if (or in case that) he should come, then I would go.

Kek6e ansd-n^ gba^, / tvent aivay before he came.
(Perhaps better: Onny^ mma^. no, na mek6^. Cf.Mek6^, no,
na onnyd mmae, when I went away, he had not yet come)

M^ko ink gf6f6ro abesi m^^ndfimu,
1 diaU go that another may take my place.

94 ETYMOLOGY. § 142-14 J

T42» (4.) Interrogative particles are the following:

a. at the head of a sentence: so, eno, as a;

b, at the end of a sentence: ana? ana? a?

So oremmd kora? will he, then, not come at all?

En 6 ddbeii na ob^ba? at what time, then, will he come?

Asa ehe n^ w6rekg n^ woboaboa woh6?

hut where will you go, preparing yourself?
Obeba y^n hkyen and? will he come to us {or, soil, not)?
Kofwe s^ owo fie knA? go and look whether he is at home.
Yeb^nya adiian' w5 kwan mu a.? shall we get food on the way'.

8. INTERJECTIONS.

143« Proper interjections are exclamatory sounds expressing an;
sudden emotion of the mind or wish that has not grown into a definit
thought.

We add to them a number of improper interjections, consisting c
single words or even short sentences and contractions of such, tha
are used in colloquial intercourse. —

Imitative sounds of processes in nature or of actions have bee
treated under the head of adverbs, § 134, 2.

144« Enclitic sounds giving emphasis are:

e (after names); 6 (after sentences); e (after a wish or command
see also § 91, 3. 170) ; a (after an emphatic assertion or wish ; § 75, 2.
The three former usually absorb a previous *a'. E. g.

Kwadw6 6! Adw6'^! §45,2. Ber'o! m6mmer'6! m6mmer'6! conn
K6 6! m6nko o! ko e! m6nko ^! go! W6kb kl they are gone!

14S* 1. The following exclamations are expressive of feeling,
viz. pleasure, joy, admiration, satisfaction, exultation (cf. 146, 2):

fi, hfi, hah&, ^, yS, o; wle, ayo, gs^mpa!
displeasure, annoyance, regret, abhorrence \

a, k, 6, 0, do, kbse!
sorrow, grief, pain:

dl, ai, b6 6, b6boe, agy'e, mlrewu(6)!
surprise, astonishment:

hdi, (m6y^ d^n ni!) ao, (se wodyeno ni!) ^i, (ade b^n nf!) bo8
Shouts: h6, hfi, w6, y6, me!

2. The following acclamations express also a desire concerning othefti
Calls for attention: hd! fwe! fweofweo.' tie! munti'o!

Expressions of contempt: k, ha, twea, tw^. a! of challenge: i^\
Utter anees in chasing: hd^, hd6! in cursing: kdi!
Hushing words: gyde! ^yko. a! munnya^!

§ 146. 147. TH£ PABTS OF SPEECH. 95

146« The following particles and phrases may be called colloquial

interjections :

1. Interrogative particles, see § 142.

2. Replies of affirmation^ approbation, assent, consent:

yiw\ yib, wie, e» eh'e, bo^! yes! cf. § 145,1.

two (twew), twebew, twem, tw^bem, of course, exactly!

ampd! wom'mod! F. wiintwd apdw! Ky. etera (=ete sa),

indeed, truly, really! you are right! you speak true! so it is!
n'^nka! tvhat else? pa fwi', be it so!

3. Replies of negation :

d^bi, no, orig. never; this word stands as the only remnant of a
whole negative sentence, e.g. wokoo ho p^n kni? (menkoo h6)
d ^ b i ! have you ever been there? yio (viz. 1 did not go there any day) !

d^bid^, no, never (=dabiarad^)!

nn56! ^h^6 F. 6h66! no!

4. Interjections of politeness, to introduce a saying by way oi excuse:

tafarakye, 8ebe(w), s^beo.

147. Salutations and their replies:

1. In approaching to a dwelling &c. (by night): ^go! reply: &rae!

2. At meeting in the morning, about noon, in the evening:

maky6! mahd! madw6! =m6mliwo aky^, ahd, adw6,
I give you good morning, good day, good evening! Or:

du^n^awg! du^newid, du^n^nwin'd!

I pity you concerning the cold - the sun - the coolnessl

3. At parting in the night: nnopa, nngp'o (memllwo nnapd), (i
wish you) good sleep! reply: da yiy^, m6nna yiy'6! sleep wdl!

4. At parting after a visit: mek6 mab^ (§112);

minnyaw w' ^se, I don't leave you alone!
At parting for a journey: m^nky^! I shall not stay long!
reply: nantew yiye, farewell! iiky^! nkyer' o! don't stay long!

5. For ivelcoming: abo (aba o)! akwab^!

6. At meeting on the ivay: ahyia! reply: ahyiahyia!

to or of one that went before: kdikan6!
At sitting : a t r a a s e (6) ! at eating : a g u a r e o !
At eating or at work: kit am'! lay hold of it!
reply: mifud no! I hold it!

7 . Congratulations : mo! m6 mo! woAy(^) ade! wotiri nkwit!

S, Condolations : k6se! due! hy^den! darek^nd!

9, Replies on different salutations: y^ aberdw! (or, ya ah^newa, ya
anyaado, ya gbere, ya amu! to the members of different families,
distinguished by the worship of different family fetishes); ya onua;
ya ad wo! (orig. to one born on Monday, as ya aylsi! to one
born on Sunday, ya bend, ya wukii, ya-6, ya afi, ya am^fi ! to one
born on Tuesday, Wednesday &c. cf. § 41, 4).

96 SYNTAX. § 148-15S.

PART IIL

OF SENTENCES (SYNTAX),

148* A sentence is a complete thought expressed in words, —
In every such expression there is 1st, a thing of which we speak,
the subject^ and 2dly, what we say of it, the predicate.

Different Kinds of Sentences.

149« The predicate may assume the form of an assertion, or a
tvishj or a command^ or a question, or an exclamation, each of which
forms may be affirmative or negative.

Accordingly we distinguish: vindicative, 2, optative, 3. imperative,

4. interrogative and 5. exclamatory sentences.

ISO. (1.) Indicative sentences contain an assertion; as, •

Onyank6pon b6o ad^, God created (all) things.

Dud blak6 n y^ kwde, one tree does not make a forest

151 • (2.) Optative sentences express a wish, either in the form of

an indicative sentence, usually with the addition of certain particles; as,

Wobewu! mayest thou die! Se w6bekum' Qbon^f6 a! Ps. 139,19.

Se khka wiinim nea ^fk wo dsbmdwoee h5 ^! Luk. 19,42.

Se anka okari na wokari m^dw^reh6w ^! Job 6,2,

O, se mewo ntabdn se abr6n6ma de ^! Ps,55,4.

A, anka woatwitwa w6n dgu p6! Gal. 5,12.

Mdnyi tekremd ap^m 6! for a thousand tongues!

or, in the form of an imperative sentence, § 152.

15!S* (.3.) Imperative sentences contain a command, exhortation,

wish or permission, in the negative way a warning, wish or prohi^

hition; as,

Do wo yonko s6 woh6! love thy neighbour as thyself!'

K6, na iikoy^ b6n^ bio! go, and sin no more!

Mmd wo w^re mmfi m6! do not forget me!

Me bd, fd w6 k5md mk me! my child, give me thy heart!

1S3« (4.) Interrogative sentences contain a question, which re^
quires either a. an affirmative or negative reply to the whole sentence,
or b. the statement of the subject, object or any other member of the
sentence. In both cases the collocation of words is the same as ia
indicative sentences ; but in the former case interrogative particles are
used, see § 142, in the latter, interrogative pronouns, see §60. 61. E.g.

§ 154. 155. SENTENCES. 97

I a. Wo &gyk wo ofie knk? is yow father at home?
So oremmd ha? tvill he not come here?
h. Hena n^ dba? tvho is come? O'sh d^n ? tvhat does he say?
Wodto ntamd befi? what kind of stuff have you bought?
Woreko h^? (or: eh^ n^ w6reko?) ivhither are you going?

The interrogative tone of the sentence alone may suffice, or the last
sound of the sentence is lengthened and sinks into the low tone. E. g.

Wobeye y6h kwahkyeref6 ak6 Was4? will you lead us on to Wasa?
Ono na miibu no f6-6? him you pronounce guilty?

Sometimes an assertion is expressed in the form of a question, which,

then, requires no answer. E. g. Mat. 6, 25, 7, 16,

Okard nsen aduan' kna? is not the life more than meat?

So wotetew brodomd wo akrate so ? do men gather figs of thistles?

Imperative sentences also may be interrogative^ in which case an

antecedent sentence may be considered as omitted ; as,

M^mmer^ and? shall I come? So y^nkg bi? shall tve go too?
Cf. Ose m^mmera and? does he say, I shall come?
So w6p6 se y^nko bi? do you wish us to go likewise?

154. (5.) Exclamatory sentences express a feeling (of joy, grief,
J regret, displeasure, astonishment &c.) in the form either of an indi-
cative or of an interrogative sentence; as,

Nhyira ne gh^ne a gnam* Awurdd^ din s^ r^bd ! Luk, 19, 38,
Onyam^ ayamye so d^n ara! how great is God's goodness!

Structure of Sentences.

155. Sentences are either simple or compound.
1. A simple sentence usually contains one subject and one predicate.

[Vben both are simple, the subject consisting merely of a noun or

moun, and the predicate merely of a verb, we have a hare simple

me] e. g. Onipa kdsd, (a) man speaks. Obi stl, somebody weeps.

When 6ne of them or both are enlarged, the subject by an attri-

or attributes (§ 183-197), and the verb by one or more comple-

its or adjuncts (§ 1 98-243), we have an enlarged simple sentence.

Rem. Two or more subjects, two or more verbs (one the principal,
other an auxiliary verb), and several complements or adjuncts,

ly be combined in the same sentence, which is called contracted,
any of the combined parts, together with the other members

Ae sentence, might form an independent sentence. Such sentences
treated as simple sentences. § 245.

A compound sentence is a combination either {a) of two or more

fdmate sentences (§ 249-253), or (W of one or more subordinate

fcith a principal sentence; the latter kind is also called a

sentence (§ 254-280).

98 SYNTAX. § 156. 15T.

SECTION I. SIMPLE SENTENCES.

CHAPTER I.
The Subject.

The Simple Subject

1S6. The simple subject is a noun or pronoun in the nominative

case, which usually precedes the predicate. E. g.

Obofo aba, a messenger has come. Osii to, rain falls, i. e. it rains.
Obi serew, somebody laughs. Eyi nye, this is not good.

When the subject is one of the personal pronouns mentioned in § 53,

it is prefixed to the verb. E. g.

Oye abofra, he is a boy. Yesuro, we are afraid. Wostl, they we-ep*

15*7. The impersonal pronoun e (prefixed to the verb) stands for
the subject (besides the cases in wich it naturally stands for a pre-
vious name of a thing or things or persons) —

1. When the thing in question, though it turn out to be a person

or persons, has not been clearly known or stated before; e. g,

Hena n^ onam ho? eye oh^ne, ivho walks there? it is the king.
Den na ekekd. neho wo wiird nom' ho? eye mmofra bi,
what moves there in that bush? it is some children.

2. Before certain verbs, called impersonal, the real subject of which

is expressed after the verb, or is left indefinite ; e. g.

Esono ^dwiima (nko), n^ esono agoru,

tvorJc and play are different things. Cf. § 199, 5.
Efanim eyi, na emf4n\m eno, this is comparatively less bad than thcM
E'pa anyinam, it lightens. Eye anadwo, it is night.
A'kk me, / ain left; akk n^m, meat is wanting. Cf. § 54 jRcm. X '
Ese wo anigye, na eny^ aniwu, joy becomes you, not shame.
Etwa no se oko, he must go. Etware no, he faints.
(Cf. Aduru no at ware no, the 7nedicine has made him faint.)
Ehid me, (it straitens 7ne) I am in a strait, in distress.

Hem. 1. In the two last examples the subject in English has becoipl
the object in Tshi. This is also the case in some other phrases, e. Jj

Okom (osukora, aw6w) d^me, lit. hunger (tJiirst, cold) holds (seises}^^

i. e. / am hungry (thirsty, 1 feel cold).
Ehd ak^me, fear has struck me, 1 am afraid.

and when the verb in Engl, is in the passive form (§ 165l!em.), e. I

Woafr^ nb, they have called hifn = he has been called.

Hem. 2. In examples like the following : Ehid m^ sikd, I am in f«P*
of money ; A'ka me biribi, 1 am tvanting something, — it may be iff^
stioned whether sika and biribi are subjects or adverbial adjuMP^

' §158-161. SIMPLE SENTENCES. SUBJECT. 99

158. The subject of the verb ne (§102,1) may exchange its po-
sition for that of the nominative complernent of the predicate (§199,1), i. e.
the subject may stand before or after the verb. E. g.

One ohene, or ; ghene nen = ne no, he is the king,

Oyi ne bene, or : gh^ne ni = ne oyi, this (one) is the king.

Double Expression of the Subject.
ISO. 1. The subject is expressed by the pronoun e, prefixed to

the verb, and a noun after the verb, in part of the cases mentioned
in §157.

2. The subject is put by itself, preceding the sentence to which it
belongs, and afterwards taken up by its corresponding pronoun, by
way of emphasis; sec § 247, 1.

3. When in the utterance of a sentence a pause or interruption
mtervones between the mentioning of the subject and of the verb
Wonging to it, the corresponding pronoun is prefixed to the verb.

Onipa no, gmmae e, that man, he has not yet come,

[ Omission of the Subject.

160. 1 . The personal pronoun w o before the (first) imperative is
'•mitted. § 90, 5. 91,9.

2. The pronoun e- falls off before the prefix a- of the perfect tense
jind the consecutive form. § 54 Uem.l, 58, h, 89, 7.

3. The pronoun e- is sometimes omitted by negligence ; e. g. before
impers. verb ka; cf. § 276, 5 iJew. E.g.

Ka (= Eka) me nk6 k, anka m^kg,
if I alone tvas left, i. e. as for me, I should go.

Oyare bebg5 no, kokuma (= ka-kuma, ekaa kuma) ma own,
a sickness hefell him, that he almost died.

4. The pronoun e- (or wg-) is also omitted in beye (se), beboro,

odncing an approximate number, weight or measure. § 175, 2. E. g.

Hnipa beye du behyiaa hg, about ten persons assembled there.
Qwg nk6kg beboro aduonu, he has probabhj more than twenty foivls,

5. On the omission of the subject before successive verbs belonging
the same subject (in contracted sentences), see § 245, 2, (253.) 253*

2-5. 276*, 2.

Compound Subjects.

61* 1. The subject may be enlarged by attributes, see §183-197.

A peculiar kind of compound subject are the specific subjects of

phrases mentioned in § 215. 217.

. The subject may be expanded into, or expressed by, a sen-
; see § 255, 1 .

.The subject is ttvofold or manifold, when two or more co-ordi-

itt]bjects are united and have a common predicate; sec § 245, 1.

100 SYNTAX. § 162-164

CHAPTER II.
The Predicate.

16!S. The predicate of a sentence asserts of the subject: wha
it is^ hole or in what state it is, ivhat it does or shall do, or all thii
in the negative. For such assertions, verbs are used, either alone, ci
together with other words, called complements and adjuncts^ by whicl
also the objects concerned by the action, and the place, time, mannei
and cause of doing or being, are indicated.

The Simple Predicate.
163* 1. The simple predicate consists of one intransitive verb
which by itself conveys the complete sense of an action *), state ^) o:
quality ^).

1. Mmarima k6, men are fighting. Mmofrd g6ru, children play.
Anom4 tu, a bird flies. O'stl, he weeps. Woserew, they laugh.
Nenk6 nam, he tvalks lonely. Onantew, he tvalks, goes on fool

2. Oyare, he is sick. Wadk, he sleeps. Wdwu, he is dead.

3. OkwAn w^re, the ivay is long. Sikd b^re, gold is red. Eye, it is good

Rem. Intransitive verbs not only admit adverbial adjuncts of anj
kind (§ 221-243), but occasionally they admit also objective *), loca
tive^) or qualitative^) complements.

1. O'sd n6 nud, he bewails his brother. Wgser^w n6, they laugh at him

2. Onam ho, he tvalks there. Onantew' fdm', he walks by land.

3. Wok6 nkod^h, they fight a hard fight. Oyar^ yarepa, ?ie is sick oj
a real sickness. Owiiu wu-yawydw, he died a painful death.
N'anim' hod gyarehoa, his face is pale with a sickly paleness.

2. The simple predicate consists of one transitive vcrby when the
object is not expressed, but easily understood, e. g. when it should b<
a pronoun which is omitted (§56iJe/w.jf. 202, 3). E. g.

Minim, / know (it). Wahtl, he has seen (it). Qfde, he took (it).

Compound Predicates.

164. 1. The predicate may be a combination of a verb wit)
another word (a noun, adjective, numeral or adverb, single or con
nected with other words), by which the predicate is (a) completed o
(b) extended.

(a) The different kinds of complement see § 198-220.

(/>) The different kinds of adjunct see § 221-243.

2. The predicate may contain two verbs, of which one is the jmn
cipal and the other an auxiliary verb, each of which may, or ma;
not, have (a) a complement or (b) an adjunct after it. The auxiliar;
either precedes or succeeds the principal verb. There may also be tic
or more auxiliaries to one principal verb. Cf. §108-111. 245,2a.

§ 165. 166. SIMPLE SENTENCES. PREDICATE. 101

3. Any cO^nplement or adjunct consisting of, or containing, a noun,
may be enlarged by an attribute or attributes. § 183-197.

4. A complement or adjunct of the predicate, or an attribute in it,
may also be expressed by (or expanded into) a sentence, § 254-280.

Uses of the Inflected Verbal Forms,

16c(« As the verb either contains the whole predicate, or is the

prominent part of it, we review here its inflexional forms. Cf. § 90-93.

Rem. The passive voice of the English and many other languages
is supplied in the following ways:

1. by active and transitive verbs, having for their subject

a, the noun mentioned as the agent of the verb ^) ;

b, the pronoun of the 3d pers. plur. ^) ;

c, the pronoun of the 1 st pers. plur. or 2d pers. sing. ^) ;
rf. the specific subject of verbal phrases^);

2. by intransitive verbs ^).

l.Ohene asoma no, he has been sent bjf the king,

Onyank6pon nim no, he is Unoivn of God, 1 Kor, 8, 3,

Onyame ahtl mo, ye are known of God, Gal, 4, 0.
2. Wgfr^ no, he is called. Wodhti m^ (mii), / am known (1 Kor, 18, 12),

Wow 66 Yesu wo Betlehem, Jesus was born at Bethlehem,
S.Yehtl adidi ans^-n^ yehil ade p^, eating is known before acquiring

of riches is known. Wukisd ode b^brebe ^, epirim', when yam is

roasted too much, it gets hard,
4.Ani top4 won mu biak6 so, not one of them has been forgotten,
5. Ne ba ay^ra, his child has been lost.

Ehg nn^^ma hhln^ s^krde, every thing ivas changed there,

Biribiara ns^e^ e, nothing has been spoiled yet,

Du4 a 6t(S nam nk an6 hy^w, of the stick by ivhich meat is roasted,
the foremost part is burned.

Present Tense and Continuative Form,

166* 1. The present tense denotes an action or state present to
the speaker :
a. an action passing at the time in which it is mentioned {actual present),

Okksk, he speaks. Onantew, he walks. Ofrd me, he calls me,
Okyer^w hh6ma, he writes (or: is writing) a letter,
h, an active or passive state; e. g.

Oh6m6, he breathes, rests, Qykre, he is sick.
2. It denotes an action or state not confined to the present time, but
taking place always or at any indefinite time (indefinite present)] so
itt the subjunctive, conditional or suppositive mode of speaking. E. g.

Onyank6poh fw^ nnipa so, God looks after (or cares for) men.
Osii t6 a, asas6 ba aduah', when it rains, the earth produces food,
Woyar^ k, w6fw^fw6 adiiru, when you are sick, you look for medicine,
8e 6b^ a, fre me, when or if he comes, call me,
Obisd m^ a, anka m^ma n6, if he would ask me, I should give him.

102 SYNTAX. §167-170.

3. It denotes an action repeated at any given occasion, in contra-
distinction from a continuous action or state (iterative present), E. g,

O'ba hd da, he always (or often) comes here,
O'da hd, he uses {to lie down) to sleep here,
O't&h no, he hates him now and then. Cf. § 102, 6.

4. The present tense is also used in describing hahitual actions of a

past time, especially in connection with d a. E. g.

Tete Hellafo agoru k da mfrihyid anan na wobegoru wo Olimpia
no mil, wode nhwed pi gugii b^bi, na mmerante tutu mmirikd f ii
so k6 botae bi ho, na nea odii ho kan no ny^ abotiri..., na
iikurofo bebre no de ayeyi bo ose fa ne ho. '(Abasem &c. pag. 21.)

5. The present tense is used for the preterit (in narration) in the word
se (mise, wuse, ose &c.), introducing the words spoken by somebody.

Wobisad no se: wobeko and? na 6s^: yiw\ m|ko!

they asked him saying, Wilt thou go ? and he said, Yes, I wUl go.
Rem. The tone of the present tense is different in the Akem dialect;
e.g. Akuapem: Mise, Akyem: mese^, I say,

167« The continuative form denotes a continuous (imperfect)
action, state or quality, without regard to the beginning or end of it,
either in the time present to the speaker, or in the past time. E.g.

Oda ho, he lies {is lying) there. Otan no, he hates him (uninterruptedly).

Mekofw^^ no no, oda ho, tvhen I visited him, he lay {was lying) there.

Kdh a otc n^ nky6n no, ntah no, na dfei de, odo no, formerly, when
he lived (was living) ivith him, he hated (was hating) him, htd
now he loves him.

168. The negative forms of the present tense and the conUn\i<i'
tive form are not distinguished from each other in tone, as the affir-
mative forms. E. g.

Onye aboa, he is not a heast. Quyi adwiima, he does not work.

Preterit and Perfect Tense.

169« The preterit tense expresses an action performed and finished

in (a point of) the past time, previous to the time present to tb©

speaker (Engl, past tense) or previous to an action of the past time

(Engl, past perfect), E. g.

Obd^ 'n^ra, he came yesterday, Oba6 no, n'dbu8uaf6 behyia^ ho,
tvhen he came (or had come), his relations assembled there,

ITO* The negative form of the preterit implies that the actioa

has not yet been performed in the time present to the speaker, or ia

the time of another action of the past time, but leaves the question

open, whether it will be or was performed afterwards.

0mm d^ e, he has not yet come (but may come still).
Wo woo Yesii no, na Herod^ iiwiii e, when Jesus was horn, Herod
had not yet died.\

§ 171-174. SIMPLE SENTENCES. PREDICATE. 103

171. 1. The perfect tense expresses an action performed and com-
pleted in the past time, but continuing in its results or effects in the
time present to the speaker (E,ng\, perfect tense, perfect or complete
present tense), or in the time of another action of the past time (Engl.
pluperfect, perfect or complete past tense).

2. Sometimes it represents a past and completed action as a real
fact present in memory.

3. Sometimes it represents a present state with reference to a pre-
vious completed action.

4. It denotes hahitual action, in the description of the manner in
which some procedure is performed.

1. Wkhk 'n^5 he has come to-day (and is now here). Wako asu preko,
he has gone (and returned, or, has been) for water once,

Oduii ho no, n^ owia apiie, when he arrived there, the sun had risen.

2. Osnfo kd6 s6: Kdnno yen n^ yedtwa nnud, na yen yerenom asoa
nwora', na yede ahy^w amll Osubrofo, na wgde srda abdn no ho.

3. Ne ho atew, he is [=has become) holy, is said of a sinner; but we say:
Onyahkopon h5 tew, God is holy (he having never been otherwise).

4. Tete Misrifo kk efiinu ^kyehkyennuru a, na woayi ne tirim hon ne
n'dy^mde afi ne mu, na wode nkyene bi ne nnuru ahy^ amd no,
when the ancient Egyptians embalmed a corpse, they tooJc the brains
and bowels out of it, and put a kind of salt and spices into the corpse.

172« The negative form of the perfect tense implies that the non-
performance of the action is a decided fact in the time present to

the speaker.
Wammd, he has not come (and the time for his coming is now past).
Oblara khkk no as^m bi, nobody told him any thing. Mat 22, 46.

Progressive Form.

173« The progressive form represents an action

tt. in its beginning at the time actually present to the speaker;

J. in immediate succession to another action;

C in the progress of performance in the present time or simultaneous

with the occurrence of another event (or performance of another action)

m the present or past time.

a. Osu rebk, rain is coming, Osii retg, it is beginning to rain,
h. Mer<^b^, / shall come immediately. Opete tfe funu hka k, na orebd,

when the vulture perceives a carcase, it comes (forthtvith).
c. Orekyer^w' nh6ma, he is ivriting a letter.
Mebd^ nehky^n no, na orekdn nh6ma,
when 1 came to him, he was reading a book,
Merey^. adwiiraa, na wo nso, wuregoru!
whilst 1 am at work, you are playing!

174* The negative form of the progressive is also used as a ne-
pthre form of the future; see § 177.

104 SYNTAX. §175-178.

Future Tenses,

IVSrn 1. The first future represents an action that will be performed

in some time to come, or an action intended. E.g.

Osii betg 'ne, it will rain to-day.

Okde se ob^ba oky^na, he said he would come to-morrow.

2. It expresses also probability in estimating the number of something:

Nnipa 'beye s^. ghd na ewo ha, men, it will be (something) Uke i. e.
c^out a hundred are here,

Wdt6 hkokg beboro aduonu, he has bought fowls (that) will sur-
pass (i. e. that are likely to exceed) twenty,

176* The second future, or future proximate, denotes a future
action as coming on certainly and immediately. E. g.
Wgrebebd mprempreh, they will come immediately,

177« As the negative forms of the 1st future (gmmey^, or con-
tracted 6nny^) and of the 2d future (gremmey^) may be easily con-
founded with the ingressive forms having the prefix be in the negative,
or with the neg. present, or with the affirm, and neg. imperative, the
neg. form of the progressive may be substituted for them. E. g.

Osii rfentg ne, there will be no rain to-day.

Consecutive Form,

178* The consecutive form expresses an action consecutive to, or
resulting from, a previous action, either as the natural, or expected,
or intended result and consequence.

It is most frequently used after future forms; in stating a series
of future acts, only the first verb is used in the future form, and all
the rest have the consecutive form. Cf. § 250, 2.

But the consecutive form is also used after any other form of the
verb, and expresses then always an intention or expectation, § 279, 2.
(In the following examples the preceding forms are arranged as in § 91.)

1. Yeser6 wo amlt ahidfo, ive entreat thee for the poor,

2, W6te ho ay^ (or ^gyb) d^n? you are sitting there to do (or to
receive) what? i. e. for what are you sitting there?

3« Qy^^ na wanya h6 as^m bi aka,
he did it, that he might have to talk of it.

4. Wgde n6 ab^ ofie na wganya no afweye,

they have brought him home, that they might be able to tend him well,

5. Yer^y^ adwiima n^ yeanya biribi adi,

we are working, that we may get something to eat.

6. Yebetu abgf6 afr^. won abd,

we shall despg,tch messengers to call them. Cf. §280, 16.

7. Wgrebekg ak6ky6r^ no, they tvill noiv go to catch him.

8. Fwe yiy^ nk wodsiw no as|m no so, na n^ bo antii,

take care to hide that matter from him, that he be not dismayed.

§179-181. SIMPLE SENTENCES. PREDICATE. 105

9. Sakra me k6ra, nk masom wo da,

change mc entirely^ that I may serve thee for ever.

10. Wommeso y^h mu, iia yeatumi awie,

they shall come and help tis, that we can finish it,

179* The negative form of the consecutive is not distinguished in

tone from the negative of the perfect. E. g.

Wodslw no kwdn, na wantumi 4mmd, they have prevented him^ that
he may not be able to come; or: and he has not been able to come.

Hem. Verbs joined to negative progressive or future forms without
an intervening na, do not assume the a- of the consecutive form.
Obesaw' nsii anom, he will scoop water to drink;
OrensAw' nsu nnom bio, he will no more draw water to drink.

Imperative Forms.

180* The imperative forms express or contain a command^ exhor-
tation, permission, wish or entreaty, implying that not the subject of
the action, but some other subject, desires or permits, or, in the nega-
tive form, prohibits the action expressed by the verb. Hy the first
imperative a single person spoken to, is addressed directly. The second
imperative in all persons, sing, and plur., expresses an indirect, in the
2d. pers. plur. also a direct, command &c.

1. pers. O'se: menko (y^nko) asu, he says: I (we) shall go for water,

2. pers. O'se: Kg (raonkg) asu! he says: go (you shall go) for water.
.3. pers. Osc: ghkg (wghkg) asu, he says: he (they) shall go for water.

In a question, the second imperative may also be used in the 2d p. sing.
Menkg knk? Shall I go (according to the will of the person asked,

or of a third person)?
Wonkg and? Shalt thou go (according to the will neither of the
person asking, nor of the person going, but of a third person)?

181* A causative imperative form, compounded with ma is fre-
quently used (cf. § 91, 10. 107, 25.); e.g.

Ma menkg, lit. give or grant I may go, i. e. let me go.

Om'ma menkg! he shall let me go!

Memma wonkg and? (shall I give you may go) shall 1 let thee go?

O'mma wonkg and? shall he let thee go?

Ma yenkg! bera nd yenkg! bera md yenkg! let us (two) go!

momma yenkg! mommerd mma yenkg! let us (more than two) go!

gmma mohkg! he shall let you go! w6mma monkg they shall L y. g.

6mma (wgmma) wghkg! he (they) shall let them go.

Md mehkdsa, let me speak] gmma mehkasd, he shall let me speak &c.

In the Akem dialect the construction of this compound imperative
is different: The subject of the principal verb is made the object of
the auxiliary verb ma, and the principal verb is without the nasal
prefix of the imperative (at least after the 2d pers. sing.). E. g.

Ma no k6! let him go! gmma no ko {or hko?)! he shall let him go I

106 SYNTAX. § 182-187.

182* All negative imperative forms add a nasal prefix to the

affirmative forms. E. ^.

O'se: mcnfiko (yennko) asii! he says, I (ice) shall not go for water,

Osc: hkg asu! he says, thou shalt not go for water.

Wose: monn'kg asu! they say, you shall not go to the water,

Menhko and? shall I not go? Wohn ko and? shalt thou not go?

Mma m^finko! let me not go, or, don^t let me go\

Ommma m6nnko! he shall not let me go!

CHAPTER III.
Attributes.

183* The subject, when consisting of a noun, may be enlarged j
by attributes; but also any other noun in the sentence, be it a coflh \
plement or adjunct of the predicate, or even itself an attribute, may
be enlarged by attributes.

184* Attributes of nouns are 1. the adjective and numeral; 2. the
noun in apposition; 3. the noun or pronoun in the possessive case\
to the latter belong nouns with postpositions.

1. The Attributive Adjective and Numeral.

1S5. The adjectival attributes of nouns are

a. adjectives of quality and quantity] b. numerals;

c. distinguishing adjectives ; d. emphatic particles.

They are put after the noun to which they are referred. E. g.

a. b^pow k^s6, a large mountain; nnud b^bre, many trees;

b. nnipa ohk, a hundred men; hnudn du, ten sheep;

c. dud yi, this tree; oddn no, that house; asii b^n, what (which) river.

d. ghene nko, the Jcing only (or alone); abofrd po, even a child,

186* When several of these four kinds of attributes ar€ used, they

follow each other in the given order a. b. c. d. E. g.

dud kokuro yi, this large tree; abofrd b^n ara, tvhatever child;
nnipa trene b^sd no, those three righteous men;
ade fbforo abieh' no nko, those two new things only,

187. 1. The adjective of quality is often so closely connected with
its noun, that it changes the tone of the noun, and assimilates its
nasal termination, if it has any; the noun may also lose its termina^
ting syllable, or the adjective, else used in a reduplicated form, \X9
first reduplicated syllable. In such cases the notin and adjective ar^
considered as compounds (either perfect or imperfect, §30, 1. 2.). E. g-.
Apan-n^ddw = apdm didaw', the old covenant; gd^-amono = gd^ m6—
mono, raw, unboiled yam; andmm6no, endm m6mon6, fresh,raw meaii

§188-190. SIMPLE SENTENCES. ATTRIBUTES. 107

ghenkese = gh^ne kes^, a great king; ohemforo, see §70, 2.

2. Nouns and numerals compounded in a similar manner, see § 80.

3. Nouns or pronouns and adjective pronouns compounded, see § 60-
viz. onik5, oyako, dteben, dekode, adi, eliayi, eliono, babi, fako^

daben, dabi, dayi, se.

4. Substantive and adjective pronouns compounded with ara, see § 60. 74.

"^ 188* 1. When two attributive adjectives of quality are referred to

j, the same noun, they are either merely put together, or connected by

r the conjunctions n^ or anase. E. g.

Odaii k6se fbforo bi si h6, a large new house stands there,
OhAtl biribi tuntum n^ fita, he saw something Mack and white*
Wobetg nt^md kokg' andse tuntum?
will you buy the red or the blue cloth?

Hem, Not to be confounded with this juxtaposition of two adjectives

is the case when an adjective has an adverb after it (as an adjunct); as,

dud kokuro pd, a very large tree*^ nnipa pi pd, a great many people,

2. Sometimes the second of two adjectives is expressed by an adjective
sentence; e. g.

To ntama pd k ^ye f6 (or: ntama f^fe d ey^) mSl me,
buy a good and fine (piece of) cloth for me,

189* 1. In the place of an attributive adjective, we may also have
an adjective sentence (besides the case mentioned in § 188, 2). See § 257.

2. An attributive numeral may have the words beye (se) or (be)boro
before it, denoting approximate estimation ; e. g. nnipa beye se du =
anipa a w6beye se du, about ten persons, § 160,4. 175, 2. 229,2. 258,6.

3. On appositive nouns in the place of English adjectives, see § 191.

2. The Appositive Noim,

100» 1. A 7ioun in apposition is put after the noun or pronoun,
to which it is referred, and stands always in the same case with it.

2. Of two nouns combined by apposition, the former is, generally,

Irf a wider sense (a generic name), and the appositive noun gives a

\^^fi4) name, limiting the former to some individual; as,

Oh^ne Dawid, king David; me wurd gh^ne, my lord the king',
db6a andnse, the animal ^spider \

3. Two or more appositive nouns of equal value may be joined to
|M6 noun, one after the other (without a comma); as,

Qse^ Kwdkii Dud F^du A'gyeman, the king (ofAsante) KwakuD.K A,

4. Appositive nouns of different value, or an apposition bearing a
ir sense than the noun preceding it, or an apposition to a personal
loun, may be separated in writing by a comma; as,

Xnhel h^ne Sdlomo, Ddwld bd, Solomon the son of David, king oflsr.
T4su Nasareni, Tsrael hdne, Jesus of Nazareth, ike king of Israel,
V4, K6fi, na wody^ ade no! thou, Kofi, hast done it!
lU, Akuapemfo, modkd akyiri! you Akuapem people stay behind.

108 SY^sTAX. § 191-193.

19]« Nouns of persons, as obarimd, obanin, ob^a, and such

as are formed by tbe personal suffix fo or ni, are frequently put in

apposition to other nouns, where in Engl, adjectives are used; e. g.

AbofrA ob^rimd, lit. a child a man, a male child, a boy; abofri qh^,
a girl; akod sisifo, lit. a fellow a deceiver, a deceitful feUow.

Such nouns often form compounds with the nouns to which they are
added (which is seen especially from the changed tone, the principal
noun often losing its own high tone) ; e. g.

Obdbarimd, obdbanin, obabea, onuab^rima, onuabca, ohemmea; §41,2.

Obauimdefo, a cunnifKj person'^ anomaniferefo, a keensighted bird.

3. The Attributive Noun and Pronoun.

192* The attributive noun or pronoun, or, the noun or pronoun
in the possessive case (§ 45, 3), is placed immediately before the word
which is qualified by it, in close connection, by which not the attri-
bute, but the tvord qualified, is often caused to exchange its indepen-
dent form with its connected form (§ 47-49). E. g.

Esono were, the elephant's skin; onipa honam, man's body;
tekremd ano, the tip of the tongue; offe kwdn, the way home;
eho addn, the houses there; obf akura', another man's village',
yen' kurow, our town; ehena sekah' ni? whose knife is this?

193« The attributive noun (or pronoun), in its relation to the
noun qualified by it, denotes

1. the jwssessor of that other thing, or b. personal or social oonnection:

yen ksksi, our countrt/; ohene abdn, the kings palace;

m^ nud gba, my brother's son ; akoA no wura, that slaveys master*

2. the author of a thing, or the subject of an action:

ohene mmara, the king's law, amrado hh6ma, the governor's letter;
banu adwuma, tico men's work; abofrd no agoru, the child* s playing*

3. the object of an action:

asas^ no t6h kny6 no de, the selling of the land displeased him,

4. the whole, of which the other thing forms a part:

osek&h no fw6ti, the point of the knife ; nnuA ase, roots ofpUtfUs,

5. the material of which the thing is made:

dw^t6 at^re, a silver spoon; kfintd ntMe, woollen clothes,

6. the contents of a thing:

agyah kotokii, a bag for arrows, a quiver; nkyene pAe, a bag ofsalL \

7. the place where a thing is, from which it comes, to which it tends:

gkwankyen dud, a tree by the wayside; eho ad^, the things there;
Abrokyiri k^nt^, a sort of country-cloth from Europe;
os^ro kwdh, the ivay to heaven,

8. the time of an action :

anadwo adwuma, work by night; awid adldf, a meal at noon,

9. the quality ascribed to a thing, or the manner of some action :
nokwdre Ny^hk6p6h, the true (rod; nokwdre ah6nu, true repentance.

§ 194-196. SIMPLE SENTENCES. ATTRIBUTES. 109

10. the cause or origin, the purpose or end and aim of an action:
odg mmodenbg, labour of love; sikd adwuma, a work for money.

Rem. The place or other relation is frequently stated by a noun or
pronoun with a postposition, so that the latter is the direct attribute
to the noun qualified, and has the noun, to which it belongs, as an
attribute before it; e. g.

opon so ntama, the cloth upon the table ;

okwdh mu as^m, a word {heard) in (^or on) the way;

ne niid ho hkommo, the anxiety for his brother.

In this manner all the nouns of place and relation appear in the pos-
sessive case, when the English prepositions corresponding to thoni show
the relation of one noun or pronoun to another noun; e. g.
me h6 as6m, a matter about (or concerning) me;
odan akyi dud no, the tree behind tJie house.

19>9:« In many of the cases stated above, the attributive combi-
nation passes over into real compounds, indicated by cliangos of tone
and of sounds, especially dropping of prefixes; e. g.

anyamesem == Onyam^ as^m, the tvord of God\ see also § 51, 3.

sikadwiima, akwahmus^m, § 193, 10. Rem.

anadwoboa, night-animal (nocturnal bird &c.) ; cf. § 193, 8.

195* Double expression of the attribute is met with in some cases:

1. When the attributive noun is the name of a person, especially a

proper noun, the pronoun ne may be added to it; e.g.

N6a n'dgy^ n^ hena? who was NoaKs father?
Yos^f n6 nuAnom ba^, Joseph's brethren came.

Rem. The Mfantsi Grammar (pag. 10. 89.) makes it a rule that the
possessive case **is distinguished by a personal pronoun in the posses-
sive case annexed to the noun**, e. g. anoma ne ntekere, bird its fea-
thers ; nnoma wore ntekere, birds their feathers. This seems to be a
singularity of that Fante dialect ; in other dialects it would sound rather
childish, and ^anoma ntakara, nnoma ntakara^ is quite sufficient.

2. When the emphatic particles Ara, ^hkdsa are added to the attri-
butive pronoun, the single pronoun is repeated; e. g.

m^ara me fi, my own house; n^iikdsa ne n^, his own mother,

196. 1. When the word, to which an attribute is referred, has been

mentioned before, the pronoun de or d ea is put for it. § 62.Mat.J2J2j 31. 32.

Asow yi ny6 wo d^, n^ eye me deii! this hoe is not yours, but mine!

But even this may be omitted; e. g.
Hena ba ne no? Ddwid. Whose son is he? Davids. Mat. 22, 42.
Rem. The emphatic particle de (§ 75, 3) must be distinguished from
the pronominal d e ; both may be used together ; e. g.

M6 s^kan yh nnam ; na wo de d^, ^ny6 nnam, my knife is sharp ;
but as for yours, that is not sharp.

2. A subordinate sentence may stand in the place of an attributive
noun ; see § 255, 6.

110 SYNTAX. §197-m

4. Different Attributes added to one Noun.

197. Two or all three kinds of attribute (§184) may be used at
the same time for only one noun^ be it a subject*) or object*) or
other complement or adjunct of a verb, or be it an attributive noun*)-

lO

1. Me nua kiima Kofi Badu adan foforo abien no ahyew,

9 K 1 r, 13 l4blA

those two new houses of my youngest brother K. B. are bumd. i-
The subject addn (^) has three different adjectival attributes (^^•)
after it, and before it an attributive noun (-), which again has as
jittributive pronoun (*) before it, and an attributive adjective (*) uA
two appositive nouns (proper names) after it.

2. When we say, Wodhyew me nud . . . adAn . . no, tJiey have bumed
those ., houses of my .. brother .., then we have the subject of the
former sentence (adan) as an object^ being a complement of the
verb (ahyew), to which a new subject (wo-) is prefixed.

3. When we say, M^ nua . . . adAfi ... ho hydw {k ^hyew^ no) yi
me yaw so, the burning of those . . houses of my . . brother . . grieves
me miK'h^- then we have the word adan as an attribtUe to the
new subject hyew.

In these three sentences the different attributes are always the same.

CHAPTER IV.
Completion of the Predicate.

198* The predicate is completed^ when the verb alone does not
suffice to express a complete thought.

The different kinds of complements of the verb are:

1 . nominative complements (of identity, character, quality, number) ;

2. objective complements^ or objects, one or two for a verb ;

3. locative complements, or covnplements of place ;

4. adverbial complements of manner ;

5. specific complements of verbal phrases (equal to any of those mentio-
ned under 1, 2, 3 or 4).

All these are integrant or necessary parts of the predicate.

1. The Nominative Complement,

199. Certain verbs of existence (§ 102, 1) require nominative cow-
plements, consisting of a noun or pronoun, adjective or numeral.
1. Identity of existence is expressed by the verb ne (old: de), and »
noun or a pronoun. The subject and the complemental noun signi-
fying the same person or thing, the position of both can be inter*
changed without materially altering the sense. E. g.

M^ nud ne Kofi (Kofi ne me nud) my brother is Koft {K. is my h\)'

199. SIMPLE SENTEKCES. COMPLEMEKTS. Ill

•

Ohiini asomm^n ne bataf6s^, a poor mavis ivory is a hog's tooth
Bone akatud ne wu, the wages of sin is death,
Yeh6w^ n^ Nyank6pon, the Lord, he is the God. 1 Kings 18, 39.
Okese no ne wo, the great one art thou = thou art the greatest.
]N[hyir4 ne mo, blessing i. e. all blessed are you.

Rem. When the pronouns yi or no are made the complement of ne,
By are contracted with the verb into ni, nen (Ak. di, de no, do no).

g. Me n^ ni = me na ne oyi (oyi ne me n^), this is my mother',
m^&gyk nen = m'agya ne no (6ne) m'dgya, he is my father;
g wg ni ! this or here is a serpent, also : this (picture) represents a. s.
Mini! here I am; wiini! here thou art: oni (^ni)o! here he (it) is;
y^h ni! here we are; miini! here you are; w6n ni! here they are!
Oneh, it is he\ gnoara nen, he is the very same person.

Existence in a distinct individuality, or in appurtenance to a certain

class of things, is indicated by the verb y e in the continuative form,

= to be, and a complemental noun or pronoun. E. g.

Eye hena? ivho is it? eye onipa ben? what (or which) man is it?
eye me, Kbff, it is /, K.; eye won nk ^yee, it is they who dit it.
Eye ghene, it is the king ; eye gh^ne bi, it is a certain king ;
6ye ghene, he is a king; one h^ne (no), he is the (that) king;
gd\ h^ne, he is (rules as) king.

Eye d^n* na gtgh? ivhat is it that he sells? eye iikokg, it is fowls.
Enye biribi, it is (also: it makes) nothing; eye asehkcs^, it is an
important matter. Eye sikd, eny^ awowa, it is gold, not brass,
Patii ye anomd, the owl is a bird (is of the class of beings called b.).
Anoma yi y^ patu, this bird is an owl (of a class of birds called o.).
Onipa no ye gtorofo, that man is a liar. Eye me dea, it is mine.

Existence in a certain quality, state or condition, is indicated by

the verb ye, to be, and a complemental adjectitJe. E.g.

Nk6kg bi y6 fiifu, ebf ye tuntiim, some foivls are white, others black.
Stimpi' ye duru, led is heavy] asdwa y^ hare, cotton is light.
Okwan yi ye tetere, osk no ye hihia ,
this ivay is broad, that path is narrotv.

Rem. Quality, espec. colour and dimension, and state or condition,
re frequently expressed by verbs. § 85, 3. 102, 4.

Existence in a certain number is indicated by the verbs ye, si,
gu, nam, boro (in the continuative form) and a numeral (or ad-
jective of quantity).

As6 ye abieh', ano y^ biako pe, the ears are two, the mouth is
only one. J)kw\d nuanom s\ ah6? wosi a86h, David^s brothers
were hotv many? seven. Ntrama ah6 nk 6gu ho? ^si atiri du,
how many cowries are lying there? there are ten heads, Qd6
ab6row gu ah6? eboro aduonu, there are hoic many kinds of yam?
more than twenty. Yen am basia, we are six of us,

hdefinite number is better expressed by verbs, than by adjectives;
6.g. Wbsiia (wgye kakrdbi), they are fetv; wgnndsO, they are not many]
w^dgso (wosi bebre), they are many; edgso, it is enough.

112 SYNTAX. §aOft

The verbs ye, si, boro, are also used in the future tense; cf. § 175,2.
Wobeye (se) du, thet^ mil he (about) ten,
Wobesi h^, they mU amount to hundred.

Od6 ahorow no, eb^boro aduasa, the different kinds of yam mag
be more than thirty. Ennii s^, they are not so many.

5. Difference of existence is indicated by the verbs so no, fanim
(usually with the impersonal prefix e), and a fwun or pronoun
(after the verb), which, however, is rather to be called the subject
than a complement. Cf.§157, 2. E.g.

£sono as^m yi mu, na esono eyi mu, the contents of these two
stories are different. 1 Mos. 40, 5. Ezek. 22, 26, Acts 15, 9.

Aniwu n^ wii, na efanim wu, of shame and death, the UMer is
preferable. (Prov.) Cf. § 248, 5. 102, 5. Mat. 11, 22. 24.

6. Change of existence is indicated by the verbs ye (in all its forms

except the continuative), to become, grow; dan, to turn^ becom\

nyin, bg, to grow. The new kind of existence is expressed by a

noun or adjective. E. g.

Wdy^ gh^ne, he has become king; wiy^ kese, he has become stout
DuA hy^w a, edan gy^biriw ne ns6, ivhm wood burns, it is turned
into coal and ashes. Eddii won' dman abien' no k6, it turned oui
into a war between those two nations. Omamfr^i n nyin kr6n-
kron, a foreign settler does not becorne pure i. e. a perfect native.
WAnyih or wdbg akwakora' (aberewa), he (she) has grown an
old man (woman).

2. The Objective Complement, or Object.

200. 1. Transitive verbs require complements in the objective case,
briefly called objects. The object is

a. the thing (or person) that suffers the action, or is affected or other-
wise concerned by it, — the passive object. §201-203.204,1-3. Or it is

b. the thing produced by the action, — the resultive object. § 204, 4.

c. Or it is the person (or thing) interested or concerned in the action
to whose benefit or detriment something is done, to whom something
is given, or from whom something is taken ; we call it the terminative
or (as it stands after many verbs that imply giving) the dative object
Cf. § 45, 4. 46, 4.

2. Some transitive verbs take ttvo objects:

a. a passive and a resultive (or factitive) object, § 205.

b. a dative and a passive object, § 206.

In both cases we call the passive object the direct, and the other
the indirect object.

3. A few intransitive verbs also may occasionally have an object
joined to them, concerning which the action takes place, or which gives
occasion to it or calls it forth; we call it the object of concern, Iti^

I

5$ 201. StMPLE SElJTEl^CIiS. COMPLEMENTS. 113

not a nocpssary, but an accessory complomoiit (because the verb gives
it cr)niplete sense without it), and is, therefore, equal to an adjunct
uf 'ttuse (§ 240, la, />.); e. g.

O'su ne niia, he heivail^ If in hrolher; ^-^ osu ne niia hr», he treeps

nhoiit (or oil (d'l'oifiil of) his hrolher^ ^—- osft nia ne una, he weeps

for his brother.
Oserew' ne ba, ///; derides {liuujlis at) his child; - oserew' ne ba ho,

he luHifhs ahoiit (i. e. at) his chi/d, —■ ne ba nti oserew, he laiiijhs

on, account of lu's duld.

4. IntniHsitire and transitive verhs occasir)nally have their infinitive

I'orni, simple (without or with an attribute) or compound, joined to

them lilir an ohjctf^ which serves eitlier to give einphnsis to the verb «)i

«»r to express the mo liner {(fnalitij or decree) of the action ^>, or to

lorm verhat phrases ccuiveying a new notioii ').

ft. Nn;i na wada, ua wniiwi'i, lie sleeps a real sleeps hut he is not dead,
it. Wa la own una, he sleeps the sleep of death.

Wacia nnaho, he sleeps a deep sleep.

O'ko nko.Ien, he f'Hjhts a hard fujht.

Obn ara na «')bo me, ivith continued striking he strikes me.
c. 0'b«j mnuxlen, he exerts himself. O'ho mmoioro, he beifins afresh.

5. Lorative complements^ specijh- complemenis of Nerbal phrases and
vaiious adjuiiils may be found romhined trith ohjerts. Cf. § 246.

Oil th(» Form and Position of the Object.

tiOK 1. The ohjert is e rpressed b}- a noun, pronoun or any other
word <»r combination of words ecjuivaleiit to a noun. It may be simple
or comjiound like the subjeet. (§ 150. IGl. Co-ordinate objects, see
§ 24'), :{. Sentences in tlie place of objects, see § 2r>ri, l\.)

When verbs tak(^ two ohjects., each of tliem may be simple or
conijiound.

2. When the ohjei't has a postposition after it, we may in some

ca«es cali it a (compound) ohjert of i-oncem (cf. § 2<M), .*J); e.g.

O'dwen ne na ho, he thinks of his mother (d wen is transitive, cf. odw^n
asem; this word asein miglit even be supplied, whereby the words
ne nA ho would appear as the compound attribute of the objecf).
O'dwen ne dae no so, he niedilaies on his dream.
C'f. Acts 70, UK Luk. 2, JfK and: susuw ho, susuw so, Arts J J?, 72.

But in most cases we take the postposition either as a locative

'Oiiiplement r(dative to, and defined by, the noun (or pronoun) before

\ it, §207,/>., or as a specific complement of a verbal phrase, ^2i:J.

3. The jiosition of the object is usually immediately aft(»r the verb
to which it is the comjdement; attributes of the objeet in the possessive
c*Re must, of course, intervene. E. g.

Q'bp me, he strikes me] wabo n*ani, he has knocked out his eye.
Qb6g ahina, he broke a pot; oboo ne una aldna, .. A/s* sister* s pot.

8

114 SYNTAX §202.

4. When necessary, the object assumes the connected form, §47, 2^^

Fa obo no, take that stone! tow bo no, throw thai stone!
Wdto ode (31,13), he has houf/ht yam,
Wafiia ode (133,32), he has jylanted yam,

5. The object maj be put bj itself at the head of the sentence,
way of emphasis or from other reasons (§ 247), and is, then, in
proper place after the verb, either indicated by a corresponding
noun (n o, w g n), or understood. E. g.

r)nipa, won no no nnd nhlnd, you do not always lore {die same) fliafl,|
Okyekyefo ade, nkura na edi, a miser s goods the mice eat

Omission of the Object.

!S02« 1. An indefinite passive object of transitive verbs, which
omitted in English, is not equally omitted in Tshi, but indicated
ade, thing, or onipa, man. E.g.

Osekdn tw^ ade, a knife ciUs (things).
Okromfo wid ade, a thief steals (things).
Owg kk onipa, a serpent bites (man).

Anka meye onifura^fo, na Mei mihh. ade, whereas I iros Uki%
now I see. Oseresere ade, he begs. Joh. 9, 7. 25. 39. (41.)

2. In other cases it may be omitted (though in English it be indi-
cated), when it can be guessed from the nature of the verb, from ths
context, or from circumstances. E. g.

Aniwa ny^ a, na fwene anylL, if the eye gets (a thing\ the nOS^

gets (it too). Prov.
Wo nsd dkm' k, wonni n nydw wo, if your hand is in (the disb)*

they will not eat (viz. the food contained in it) leaving you aside,
Wonni a, won nod, if they do not eat (a thing), they do not cook (ii).

Hem. The simple verb di, ^o eat, is always transitive, relative to
an object, but the reduplication didi is intransitive. §99,2. E.g.
Wuntiimi iVko ne hkyen; odidi; you cannot go to him, he is at fRBiiL

3. When the object is a person or animal that has been mentioned
just before, it is, as in English, denoted by a pronoun. E. g.

Ogudn no atew, k6kyere no, the sheep has broken loosd, go catch ii»

4. But when the object is an inanimate thing, the pronoun is usu-
ally omitted. E. g.

W(Sde ndm no boye den ? menoa madi,
what will you do with that meat? I tvill cook (it and) eat (it).

The Object an Infinitive.

203« 1. Several verbs may take an infinitive as their object; e.g.
sua, to learn; kyero, to show, teach; hfi, nim, to know, understand;
tumi, to be able, ran; boe, to begin; kye, to delay; gyae, to leave oll\
wie, to finish, complete,

i

i 204. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 115

An infinitive of a transitive (or locative) verb has its object or ob-

Rcts (or locative complement) before it, like an attribute in the pos-

essive case; a noun, being a single object, and the infinitive are often

(lade up into one compound word. E. g.

Osua okeiikdn or filioma kan or nhomakdn, he learns to read,
Okyere no (nhoma) kyerew or nhomakyerew, he teaches him to write.
Ohehu kenkah (nhomakan) ntem, he will soon understand to read,
Onim ko, he knows to fi(jht; onim ntrama kan (ntramakdn), he can
count coivries; minniW aduan yi di, I cannot eat this rf/sA (having
never eaten it before). Ehgfo tumi ahgho fwe, the people there are
aide (are so hold or impudent as) to flog strangers. Onnyae sd, he
does not leave off weeping ; wagyae no fwe, he has left off heating
him; wannyae no yiye ye, he has not left doing him ivell. Itiith,J2,J20,
Wawie n'asem no k^, he has finished (to deliver) his speech, Owie^
n'asuafo no kasakyere, he made an end of commanding his disciples.

Mat. 11, 1.

2, In the compound frequentative verbal form wanya nyee(§ 107,

12) we have likewise an infinitive as the object of the verb nya,

ind such an infinitive may have one or two objects, or a locative

omplemcnt, or even an adjunct, before it, like an attribute. E. g.

Wanya ho nkoe, he has often gone there.
Wanyli no sa' nkae, he has often told it so.
Manyil no ukakyeree, I have often told him.
Many^ no fo ntu], / have often admonished him.
Wonycia no mpokyere iinul, he had heen often hound with fetters,

3Iark, 5, 4,

Rem, 'J'he verb p e , ^o seek, desire, like, love, he fond of, tvish for,
md the verb tumi, to he a match for, he equal to, are construed
vith a passive object, which may also be an infinitive. E. g.

Kope apafo bi bera, go seek some (hired) lahourers (or carriers)
and come with them. Wope gko, thet/ are fond of war.

Ope a<;'oru sen adwumaye, he likes playing heller than working.

Ope n'asem, he likes him. Ope no, he loves her.

Mepe lio mmom' sen ha, I like that place better than this.

Metunil no, I shall he ahle to snatch or to overcome him.

turn I no. he /.9 a match for him, is equal to him,.

Wgantumi won, thcjj could not ivithstand or overcome them.

On tumi adwiima no, he is unequal to this husiness.

Otumi sa yo, he often does so, is ivell versed in doing so, is accusto-
med, knows well to do it (sfi is a complement of manner turned
into an attribute before tlie infinitive yg=:=ye).

Other constructions of jie, to wish, he wilUnq, will, tumi, to he ahle,
can, see § 250 Hem. Cf. § 107, 12. 23.

Passive and liesultive Ohjects.

304. 1. Of passive ohjects, examples are found in § 201, 3. 4. 202. 1.
203. and elsewhere.

IIG

SYNTAX

§20i

2. We add some which we may call rcciproad ohjecls (Hiis' Ontline

&c. § 189, 1 </), the action expressed in the verb being conceived is

ninhidl between the subject and the object, so that wo may transfer

the object to tlie place of the subject, and the subject to that of the

object, without materially altering the sense; or both of them may lie

made co-ordinate subjects or united into one pronominal subject. E. g.

Abofra yi se n'agya, Hum hoy fs lika his father;

agya no se ne ba, (h((t father is like his son;

abofra yi ne n'a«»*y{i se, this hoif and his father are alike ^

agya no ne ne ba se, th<d father and his son are alike;

ose no, o-ne no se, wose or wosesee, thet/ are (dike.

Ose own, or own se no, he deserves deidh (or deidh herowes him),

Atade yi fata no, this fiarment suits him. — Asemmone fat/i uhirtDi

a had deed fds (is likely to be committed by) a poor wan. (Prov.)
Mihyiaji no wo kwan mu. J met him on the road; o-ne me liylai

or yehyiae (wo) ho, he met with me or n^e met (name loffclher) tlmt

?), Another kind of passive ohjert is found with ]»redicates expressing

a hodilfj or ment(d affection^ and taking a pronoun as an object, which

denotes the person affected. E. g.

^le ti ben me, wy head aches. Ne st^ tutiiw no, lie has an arhintf iood'
},\o. ho dsViriw me, / am astonished, .shocked, 1 .shudder .
Me ho yeraw me, / am in anriety or perplei'ity.

4. A result ive ohjed we have in tlie following sentences:

Otomfo bp aspw, the smith forfjes a hoe (- cf. the passive object in:

Otomfo bo dade, tlie smith hammers iron).
O'nwene t/im, he weaves doth; osen akohnua, he carves tt chair:
oka asem, he delivers a speech ; osi apini, he vtters a (f^roan:
eye ahuru, // prodwes foam; dua sow aba, the tree hears frail;
asase ba aduaiV, the ear tit produces food.

Direct and Indirect Ohjects.
A passive with a resultive object.

S05« 1. A dire/t or passive ohject is, by the action expresst'd in

SOUK*, verbs, nntde or tamed into, or appointed or considered as, or

((died, something else, expressed by the indirect or resultive (tftjett

which is, in this case, called the factitive ohject. E. g.

Wpyee no safohene, they made him raptain ;

wosii no bene, they .set him (up as) kiny; cf. 5.

w()hyee no sofo, they appointed him (to be) priest'^

obayifo dan neho osebo, (t sorcerer troiisforms himself into a leo}Mnl

2. After the verb bu, to reckon, esteem, consider, the particle se, (Hf*

may introduce the second object; e.g.

Wobiiu no (se) opanyin, they esteemed him ((ts) ((n elder;
obuii no (se) onyansafn, he counted hint (as) a wise^ man.
Onyankopon a paw mo se n'jidwumayede, (Jod has vfiosen yOU {^^^
his instruments.

206. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 117

3. Tlic indirect ohjcct may also bo an adjecUvCj before which a uouu,
evioiisly mentioned or referred to, may be understood; e.g.

Obuu no kese = onipa kese, ho esteemed him (freat ^^ a great man ;
uhyirjui homeda no, na oyee no kronkron = da krohkron,
he blessed the day of rest and made it holy = a holy day;
ohyee ntama no koko', he dyed the cloth red;
tjhno dade no tijre, he hammered Hie iron flat'^
wjiytj ho pasa, he has made there desolate^ laid the place waste;
wayt' won pasa, he has utterly destroyed them.

4. The verbs exprcssinj^ to call, to give a name to, have usually
ohjcjts; e. j*-.

Wofnj no Kofi, they call him K.; wotoo no A'dow, they named him A.

In Svofre ne din se Kofi' we liave two verbs, each with a single object;
'wotoo no din Adow, they gave him the name A.\ we have two
jects like those in § '212, and Adow is an apposition to din;
*wotoo ue din Adow', we have one object, din, with an attributive
oaouu and an apposition.

5. In some of the above mentioned cases, the passive object may
8o have its ow^n verb de (or fa in the imperative and negative forms),

that we have two co-ordinate predicates, each w4th its complement.

• § 245, 2a.

Wgde no yee osafohene; wode no sii bene; wgde no hyee gsgfo.

Wgde no too A'dow; another construction would be:

Wgde ne wgfa A'dow din too no, they named him after his ancle A.

Hem. We might call an indirect ohject or ^d comjdement of comparison
the ohject with ivhivh a direct object, introduced by the verb de or
fa , is compared; e. g. Obi m'fa aberekyi u to guanten ho, nobody
compares a goat icith a sheep. Cf. § 253*, C

what we shall iind mentioned in § 235 c. as an adjunct of extent
or concern.

A dative with a passive object.

206* 1 . The dative objer.t stands after verbs ex])ressing that some-

luig is given or imparted to or bestowed on the object (the subject

tjiug the giver and the object the receiver), or, that something is taken

tdicited from the object (so that the object is the giver). Such verbs are:

ma, (ogive; kye, to present; kyere, to show, teach; here, to bring;
ye, ^0 do (good or harm), to cause; gy aw, to leave to .yi, to hand
out, give oat to, and: to call forth from ; ^y^, to take from; bis a,
io ask from; bua, to answer.

The thing given, thi". passive or direct object, follows after the dative

w mlirect object. E. g.

Qm^^ me sekan, he gave me a knife:

skyee me dukfi', he presented me with a handkerchief;

1?kyeree me mfonini, he showed me a picture. Cf. 2.

^«di ne hhlua, wauuyaw me bi, he has eaten all and left me nothing.

L

118 SYNTAX. §207.ap».

Mayo wo bone, 1 ham done ihee wrong, evil.
wdy6 me yiye, he has done me good, shoivn me kindness.
Eye me anigye, it gives me joy; cf. eye me fe, it makes me glad;
ey^ me ydw, avVerehow, it gives (causes) me pain, grief.
O'yime abufiiw, he provokes me to (calls forth from me) anger;
6yi me awereh6w da, he alivays causes me grief \
oyi me nt6n, he prefers a charge against me, exposltdates with fw.
Woyl gli6ne tow, they pay tribute or taxes to the king;
oh6ne yi won tow, the king raises tribute, taxes, from them.
Wgagy6 me sikd pi, they have taken much money from me.
Okdil me as6m bi, he told me something ; obisd^ me as^^m bi,
he asked me something; mammudno fw6, I answered him noOmg.

2. In some of the above-mentioned cases, the passive object may also
have its own (auxiliary) verb de (or fa, § 108), and then precedes
the principal verb with its dative object, so that we have two co-
ordinate predicates, as in § 205, 5.

Ode sekan no maa me ; ode duku' yi kyee me ; ode mfonmi bi kyeretme.
Ode ne bd berc^ me, he brought me his child,
Mede asem no mibisda no, I asked him about that matter]
ode ns6m yi bua^ me, he answered me tvith these words.

In other cases the indirect object is introduced by a directive verb

as an auxiliary, following after the principal verb and its passive

object, — so that we again have two co-ordinate predicates^ of which

we call the second an auxiliary. Cf. §243&.

OktlA as^m bi ky^r^c me, he told me something.

Ogydw' ne sikd ma^ me = ogydw' me ne s., he left me his moneg.

Other [co-ordinate] auxiliary verbs may be used besides; e. g.

Wakyerew iih6ma de abere me = wakycrew me nhoma, he has written
me a letter. M6 nso mfekycrcjw' bi (mti wode) kom^li no = me-
kyerew' no bi, I also wrote one to him.

3. The Locative Complement, or Complement of Place.

I307. Locative verbs, i. e. verbs im2)lying rest or motion «n, or
direction to or from a place, require a complement of place.
The jdace forming the complement is indicated

a. in an absolute way, without express reference to another object,
by a notm or pronoun or adverb of place; § 118,2. 119. 122. 123,2.
124-128.

b. as referring to some other thing (or person), by a noun or ptonf^

with a postposition; § 118, 3. 119. 122. 123, 1. 124. 125.

E.g. a. Owo fie, he is at home; otc ho, he sits or lives there.

b. Owg ddn mu, he is in the house; ote ne bd ho, she sits by her child*

208. Such locative verbs are the following:

1. Verbs denoting rest in or at a place:

wo, neg. nni, to be; te, to sit, be, dwell, live (at a place);

?08. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 119

ka, to remain, he left (at a place); di, to occupy (a place);
tra, tena, to stay (cf. 4); kye, to stay long.

SikA bi wo me foto mu, there is some gold in my hag.

Ouui dan mu na onni turom, he is neither in the house nor in the

Ote n*dgud so, he is sitting on his chair. [garden.

Akyem bene t^ Kyebi, the king of Akem resides at Kyehi.

Wakk babi, he has remained somewhere i. e. he is dead.

Obetra ha nn^nnu, he will stay here two days,

Ortiiikye ha bio, he tvill no more stay long here.

Obedi ho nii^nsd, he will pass there three days, [In this sentence,

ho may be taken as an adjunct of place (§ 225, 3), but in odi ho,

he is the second (§ 83, 2), it is a complement.]

2. Verbs denoting motion in a place :

nam, to walk, kyin, kyini, to move round, run ahout, rove, roam]
fa, to take one's way (through, over, along).

Guam {or onennam) abgnten so, he is tvalking on the street.
Obgmmgfo kylni wiiram', the hunter roves through the hush.
Wdfa mfikyiri, he has taken his tvay hehind the house.

3. Verbs denoting rest in a place in the continualive form, and
)lion to a place in all the remaining forms, used either intransitively,

causatively after the auxiliary verb de (or fa):

gyiua, si, ta, to stand, to place; tweri, to lean against;

da, to, gn, hew, bea, boa, sam, butuw, to lie, to lay, cast &c.

sisi, to sit, perch; koto w^ to stoop, kneel; sen, to hang, to squat;

konkon, to hang, soar; tene, to creep, lie lengthway;

ben, behkye, pini, Ak. p i n k y e, to approach, he near, draw, near.

Ogyina ho, he is or was standing there; okogyinA4 ho, he went and
stood there; gyina ho! stop! ode n6 gyina^ h6, he placed him there.
Dud bi si n^ddn anim\ a tree stands hefore his house,
Orcsi bonto no mu, he is stepping into the hoat.
Nsu xk mfikyiri, tvater stands hehind the house.
Qyar6 d^ mpd s6, he lies sick on his hed,
Qkgdda dud bi ase, he lay down under a tree.
Qwo b^a okwdnmu, a serpent is lying in the way.
$[Dudn bi boa abont^h so, some sheep are lying in the street,
Ak6ko butuw n'dbd s6, the hen sits hatching.
Ode ue tuo tvverii dud, he leaned his gun against a tree.
Okot6w ne udnkroma anim\ he is kneeling.
Y^aben kurow no ho, ive are now near the town,

4. Verbs denoting motion to a place, either intransitive, or causative

rith d e (or fa) :

fca, to come; ko, to go; du, to arrive; duru, ^o descend, comedown;
«5, to reach; ka, to touch at; pem, to knock at; tra, to sit\ fwe,
to, to fall; fwe, to look; kyere, to show, turn, direct to or to-
wards; kyene, to throw, hurl towards; twa, to cut across, pass ;
tra, to leap, jump, pass over; mi a, to press upon; huw, fit a, to
iW uponj at, into; fiti, to hore, prick; hyen, to enter.

120 SYNTAX. §209.

M'Adamfo hi aba me nkyeh, a friend of mine has come to me,
Manyd madii fie ni! noiv at length 1 have arrived at home!
Tra ase! sit down! Otraa opoiiko no so, he sat upon the Jwrse.
Wato (or wafw6) amoam', he has fallen into a pit.
No mfensere kyer6 apuei, his window shows eastward,
Wotow' Yona kyenee pom', thet/ cast Jonah forth into the sea,
Ohuruw traa oka no, he leaped over the ditch,
Adesoa no nM mhti so, the load j)^^sses my head,
O'liuw ne nsam\ he hloivs into his hands,
Olitd ogya mu, he fans the fire,
Olitil or oby^n' ddh mii ara pe na omd^ akye,
as soon as he entered the room, he greeted.

(Infinitives appearing like locative complements, see in § 126. 280,2.)

5. Verbs denoting motion from a place:.

fi (firi), to proceed or come from; gyaw, to leave.

The verb fi (firi) in the continuative form denotes appurtenance

to a place: to he front] in other forms, especially in the ingresuive

forms (with the prefix be or ko), it denotes, as the verb pue, to

appear^ come forth, make one's appearance somewJiere, E. g.

Abofo bi fii Kiimase ba^, messengers came from Kumase,
Osafohene yi fi Akyem, this captain is from Ahem,
Onipa yi abcfi me mii, this man has come to me unawares,
Wdfl me nsd or wafi me nsam agudn, he has escaped from me.
Wabefi mensdm\ he has come to me, I have got him,
Wapiie abonten so, he has shown himself in the street,
Ogyaw' ho koe, he departed from thence. Mat, 16, 4. Joh, 4, 3. 43.
[Cf. Ogydw' no ho ko6, he left him there and tvent away.
Here gyaw is used transitively and ho is an adjunct of place.]

4. The (adverhial) Complement of Manner.

!309« 1. A mode of existence \\i expressed by the verb te (§208,1) aud
a complement offnanner, consisting in a. pronoun (den? sa, sa, saara,
se) or the adverb yiye, well [or a comparison expressed by the cou-
junction se with a noun or pronoun or a sentence, cf. § 255, 5], K.g.

Ote den ? ne h6 tc den ? how is he? ote yiye, ne b6 t6 yiye, Jis is iCcU-
Oda so th Sciara, he is still in the same state.
[Ote so(nea ote) 'nera, he is as (lie was) y ester day. 1
Ete sa, sa na etc, [se etc ara ne no, se 'te nen, se 'to ui,] SO it is.
Ote se ono (tc), he is like him, similar to him.
Onyame asem te se ogyd, the ivord of God is like as a fire,

Jer. 33, 20,

2, The verb y e, to become, making up for the verbal forms wanting

in the verbs te (see 1) and ye, to he good, assumes the same compk**

mcnts of manner. E. g,

A y^ yiy^, it is tvell noiv. Ebeye s^, it will be so>
Wo h6 beye yiye bio, thou toilt he weU again.

§ 210-212. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 121

Jicnh Thu coiuplemciit ot* inauuer may be enlarged by an adverb
of degree. K. g. Ote yiyii pese; aye yiyc kora ; ete sa' pe.
The examples in 1. 2. may also he taken to §2v]3. 2*U.

3. Other complements of manner, showing similarity, instrument,
also came or origin of an aetion, are found among the specific com-
plements of verbal phraser, § 211. ^1 2. E. g.

O'di no nya, he treats him like a bought slave, he illtreats him.
0'ki\ no nima , he touches him (with) slicks, i. e. he flogs him.
Wabow nsd, he has become weak from strong drink, i. e. he is
intoxicated.

5. Specific Compleftnents of Verbal Phrases.

tSlO. A verb expressing the notion of an action in a wide and
general sense, may take a specific complement, so that botli words
togeilier denote one new idea, which in the English and other languages
is usually expressed by a single verb. Such peculiar combinations
we call verbal plirases, (By other Grammarians they are called com-
pound verbs; but in a vernacular grammar, such phrases must needs
be treated as syntactical combinations, not as mere verbs.)

Seven different kinds are to be enumerated in §211-220,

311, I'he first kind of verbal plirases contains such in which the
specific complement has the nature either of an object, or of a comple-
ment of manner. Some of the nouns used as complements are scar-
cely used otherwise but in connection with the peculiar verb to which
they belong; the real meaning of them is often obscure, so that we
cannot easily discern between the objective and adverbial complement.
But we distinguish

1. intransitive combinations, denoting actions or states confined to
the subject; some of them become transitive, when the verb is used
causatively;

2. transitive combinations, taking a passive or dative object between
the verb and its specific complement.

til^. (1.) Intransitive verbal phrases are e.g. the following:

bo dam, to go mad; trans, (with a pass, obj.); to drive mad;
wabo dam, he is mad; ebebo me dam, it will drive me mad,

bo gua (cf. agua, seat, egua, market, assemblg), to assemble] cans
(often with a dative object) to call together an assembly,
woabo gua, they liold a council. Brghene no bae no, ohene boo no
gua, when the governor came, the king convoked an assembly in
liis behalf,

bo tuo, to shoot one's self; bow nsa, to be intoxicated;

da adagyaw, ^0 &6 naked; dsi nsow, to be distinguished by a mark;

di bata, di gua, to barter, to trade;
odi ntama gua, he trades in cloth (attribute of the complement).

1 22 SYNTAX. § 213.

di bem, to he (found) innocent, to be acquitted;
di fo, to be (found) guilty, to be condemned;

6d\ kum f6, he is (juilty of death, condemned to be killed \
di nim, di nkonim, to be victorius, to triumph'^
di pa, to go or work for hire;

odino pa, he does mercenary work for him;
di nse w, to curse, swear; di oboBom, to take an oath (by a fetish);
nom abosom, to enter into a confederacy;
wo abosom, to be confederate;

t o ii k o, ^0 fall asleep, sink into a slumber /liuanenkcrom, to snore;
tu agyina, to consult, confer, deliberate; trans, to give advice;
twa adwo, agyadwo, bg bena, bo abubuw, to lament

(2.) Transitive verbal phrases are e. g. the following :

bo dua, hyc nsew, to curse; bo fc, to tvound (in the head);

bg pa, to hire; bg k6kg, to forewarn; bg so bo, to blame;

bu bom, to acquit; bu fg, to condemn;

di kusum, to clieat; di amim, to over-reach;

di ni, to honour; di atem, to scold, revile; di awu, to murder;

gye (abofra) tata, to lead (a child) in ivalking;

gye atu, ye atu, to embrace; gye a wo, to welcome;

bu ramgbg, to see mth commiseration, to pity, commiserate;

hye ma, to fdl; liye banihha, hye nkiiran, to encourage;

ka hycw, to tvarm; ka mma, fwe mpiro, to flog;

tu fo, to admonish, exhort, give an advice;

twa adafi, to reveal, discover, disclose to;

twa dwow, to rob; twa twetia, to circumcise;

yi ad w 0, to kidnap ; yi liu, to frighten; yi ahi, to frighten; to mock at.

yi apra, to warn; yi ntcn, to remonstrate tvith, to reproach.

Some of these may bo used without a passive object, though an

indefinite object is understood ; eg-,

Wak6bg pit', he has been out to hire (people, carriers, labourers);

wdbg wgn apa he has hired them.
Wddl awii, he has committed a murder (on somebody);

wddi no awii, he has murdered him.

Rem. In all cases in which both the verb and the complement are
used in a plain sense which they have elsewhere, we do not speak of
specific verbal phrases ; as, b g k u w, to make a heap, to put in heaps.

213« The second kind of verbal phrases, having a noun of place

and relation for their specific complement, may be distinguished from

the combinations of locative verbs with common locative complements

(§ 207), when the verb acquires a new meaning in connection with

the specific complement.

E.g. in "gda dud no ase, he lies under the tree; ofil dud no ase
ba^, he came forth from under the tree*^ the verbs da and fi have
locative complements, as spoken of in §207; but in **6da Onyami
^se, he thanks God; ofil n'ddwuma ase, he began his work^ we have
the specific verbal phrases: "di ase, to thank; fi as6, to begin.^ —

§214. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 123

Other examples, referring also to § 201, 2. 2076., are the following:
O'fwe mfonini, he beholds (looks at) a picture; 6fw^ hnudn, he tends

sheep; — here we have simple objects.
O'fwe ho, he looks there; gfw^ n^wuri nsd an5, he looks unto the

hand of his master; — here we hsiYQ locative complements.
O'fwe adwumay^fo so, he superintends the labourers;

gfwc asasc no s6, he governs that country; — here we take f we. . so

as a verbal phrase in which so is the specific complement, and

adwumayefo or asase no is its attribute.

The noun of place and relation may be used as a specific comple-
ment, either absolutely, as a mere adverb (of place), or with relation
to another object, as a postposition. In both cases the verbal phrases
are either 1. intransitive or 2. transitive {with passive or dative objects)
See the examples in § 214.

314. (la.) Intransitive verbal jJirases with an absolute locative

C(ymplement are the following:

Kg so, to go on; da so, to a so, to continue (see § 107, 16);
te ase (in the contin native), tra ase (in other forms), to live.

Jieni. 1, In "wgte n'ahennf ase dwodwo, they live quietly under his
reign*^ te alone is sufficient, because a common postpositional comple-
ment follows.

Rem. 2. The combinations te ase and tra ase, with an attributive
noun, mean also: to sit under, and tra ase, without an attribute, to
sit down ; e.g.

gte du^ bi ase, he sits (is sitting) under a tree; tra ase! sit down!

ba mu, bam*, to come in, i.e. to be fulfilled, realised;

bo mu, bom', 1. lit. to strike (etnit a loud sound) in or through (the

space in wiiich we live) i. e. to cry, roar, thunder; 2. lit. to strike

(together) in (the common space), i. e. to unite, agree, be reconciled,

make friends.
tee mu, teem', (lit. to stretch in, to emit a sound straightway

penetrating the space in which we live,) to cry out. Cf. § 1 20, 4.
twa mu, twam', (lit. to cut in or throv^gh the space,) to pass by.

Rem. 3. In bam', bom', bobom', teem', teeteem', twam', twi-
twam', the specific complement mu has dropped its vowel and is
written together with its verb in one word ; yet the preterit tense may
be written with a doubled vowel; as,

N6 d^e no bdi\m' pe, his dream was exactly fulfilled.

Wgte^^m' se: fa no kg! they cried: take him away! away with him!

Nnannu no twadm' no, oH\ ho kg^, after those two days he departed.

Rem. 4. Not to be confounded with this specific locative complement is
, I' ihe postpositional locative complement whose attribute is omitted; as,
Ahind bi s\ hg, fa nsii gum'! there is a pot, pour tvater into (it)!
% the case of m being not an abbreviation of m u, but belonging to
Ae verb by original formation, as in bam, film, to embrace] pkm,
to join, sew] pam, to confederate; pem, to knock at; som, to serve.

L

124 SYNTAX, §215.

(l/>.) Intnuisitive verhal phrases with a rchUirc locative complement
i. e. a complement to which an attribute is ex[n'essed or uudei*6tood, are:

(li so, to rulc^ govern; hyo so, to oppress]
fi ase, fiti ase, hye a so, bo ase, tu ase, to heffin,
E.jj;. Odi man no so, he rules over the coimtrf/,

Ohye nkurofo no so, he oppresses the people,

Oti ase reto aban, he beqins to build a house.

Otiiii ase kru\ asein no, he related the story from the bef/inning.

Item. o. Jn these j)hrasos ase is rather a name of a thing; (= (lie
under end,, underynost 2)art, foundation^ beginning),, than a name of
a place. Ct'. ohye abanto no ase, he begins that building,, aud: ehye
obo no ase, it sticks under that stone.

gyc so, to reply to, to answer; ogye ne fre s«>, he replies to his call.
so mii, to lay hold of; so pon no mii, lay hold of that table!
ka ho, (lit. to touch the outside) to accompany ; meka no h6, J am

with him.
'J'hese phrases may take a dative object,, and at the same time the
attribute to which the complement refers, may be left out; e. g.

O'gye no so, he replies, answers him (= ogye no n'asem so, he replies

him to his word).
So no mil (= so ne mu, so onipa no mii), lay hold of him (of that

man) I But: So no mi'i (=i^ so nMdvvuma mu ma no), help hitn in

{his work), i. e. ^;w^ a heJjnnff hand for him in or to his work.
Meka, no hO (= ne ho, §55 Rem. S), I shall be with him. But:
M^ka no h6 = mede (hi) meka (n'ade) ho mamlSLno, I shall add

(something) for him to (what he has already).

Hem. fJ. The phrase ka ho = to add, is causative, and the thing
added is usually introduced by de (or fa); e.g. ode nnipa hk IsAk
dom no ho, he added a hundred men to the host.

(2.) Transitive verbal phrases with specifw locative complements are:

ma so, to lift up (so is absolute, without reference to an attribu-
tive object). Ma wo nan so, lift up they feet i.e. go quick!

tu so, to depose, dethrone. Wotiiuno ade so, they dethroned him*

bore ase, to humble, subdue (with passive object; ase is absolute);

da ase, to thank (with dative object; ase is absolute);

hye ase, to promise (with dative object; ase is relative, usually
followed by a noun-sentence introduced by the conj. se ; of. §255,66.

E.g. Abofra no afw^ ase, ma no so! the child has fallen, lift him up!

Obiara a omti neho so no, wobdbere no ase, na nea obere n^hO ase
no, wobema no so , whosoever exalleth himself shall be abased^
and he that humbleth himself shall be exalted.

Woahye me ase se wobeba yi, meda wo ase, as you have (thus)
proynised yne to come, 1 thank you.

t2]5« A third kind of verbal phrases is that in which a specific
subject, being a noun of place, usually referring to some noun or
pronoun in the possessive case, gives a specific meaning to the soc-
'eediug verb. JE. g.

§216.217. SIMPLE SENTRNCES. complemekts. 125

eho or emu or ano da ho, it is or lies Open;
e in n d o, it is deep ; emu go w, it is spacious ; emu tore w, it is wide ;
emu ye den, it is diffiruU, different from eye den, it is hard;
emu ye duru, // is important^ diff. f'r. eye duru, // is henvii :
emu ye hare, it is eusf/; diff. i'v. eye hare, it is liffht.

AlViw no Im d<\ ho, thdt planldHon lies open, presents free ((C'-ess.
Asem no mil da ho, the mailer lies open or plain (before us).
(Jdai'i no fmo da lio, (he door or entrance of the house is open.
Asubonten no mil do, that river is deep.
Odau yi mu ^"ow, this room is spacious.
Adak/i no mii terew, that hox is wide.
Asem yi mu ye den, this matter is hard to he settled.
Kmu (or asem yi mu) siw me kakra or ntew me yiye,
it (or this matter) is not quite or not sufftrientl// jd((in to mr.

310» 1. 'I'he fourth, fifth and siMlh kind of rerhal phrases express
sonai hodilij or meutal artion. or affection, state or condition, nud have
this peculiarity, that .^i>nie part of a person s hodi/ is mentioned as
the firammatical snhjert or ohject of the sentence, to which the nouu or
pronoun denoting the person (the logical .subject or ohjecl) forms an
alt r Unite in the possessive case.

2. 'J'ho.se plirases, whidi have such a specific compound suhjeif (^2\7)

do not seem to belong into this chapter ou the roniplemrnls of the

predicate, like those with such a specific compound ohjecl (§218);

but the former ought not to he separated from the latter, aud, in fact,

the notion of the predicate is completed h// the notion put in the plare

of the subject. K, g.

Onipa no awu, that man has died. Onipa no ani awu, that man s
face htts died, i. e. that man is ashamed.

3. In § 219 we shall find both cases combined with each other or
with some other specific complement.

4. The nouns that are used in such verbal phrases, as the gram-
matical subject or object, are the following:

eho, the outward part, frame, body, also the whole per. siui ov .^rlf;

eti, tiri, tirim\ the head, the interior of the head;

ani, the eye, face; anim, the face; nton, the eyebrows;

ano, anom, the mouth; a so, as 6m, the ear'^

koii, konmu; the necJc, throat; menewAni', the fjullet ;

bo, komd, the brea.st, heart; were, the heart, mind, memory,

yam\ the Jwsom, the interior of the chest and belly;

nsa, nsam, ^A^ hand, hands; basa, abasam\ abaw, the arm, arms;

enan, anan, the foot, feet'^ andnmu, the foot-steps, foot-prints.

217. The fourth hind of verbal phrases has a .specific compound
*tt^jW (a personal nouu or pronoun in the possessive case, and the
ttame of some part of that persons body). E. g.

126 SYNTAX. § 217.

1. No b6 lilm, popo, s^w, {his frame shakes) he tremhles, quakes^ shivers;
lie ho ye den, he is (bodily) stronff (oye den, he is hard in his dealings);
lie h6 pirim, ye, te yiye, iiye y\y('-, he is slroiKj, healthy ;
ne ho hum no, he feels hot; ne ho boi'i, he stinks;
ne ho ye fi, ye hwini, ye tan, he is dirty, nasty, ugly;
lie ho ye fe, he is fine, handsome, heauiiful-,
lie ho twa, ye hare, ye kjinikain, ye wewe, he is quick, nirnble\
ne ho afom no, hia no, kyere no, yeraw' no, he is in a strait, in distress,
ne ho dwiriw no, lie is ainased, terrified. [trouble, perplexit/g'^

ne ho h{\w no. pere no, nseiV no, titi no, he is impatient;
no ho adwo, agow (no), ka neho, asdi'i no, sepew no, atg (no), atu no,
he is at ease, calm, composed, happy, joyful, contented &c.

i^ Ne tirim' ye den, lie is cruel;
ne tirini nye, nye no yiye, he has a had consciefice, is troubled in

his mind;
ne tirini nye, nye no yiye, ka (no), ye basabasa, ye sakasaka,

he is deranged, craved, crasy\
ne tirim kyere no, t\vetw6 no, ye no kesekese, ye no k^serenenene,

he is in anguish, perple.tity.

3. N'ani here, {his eye reddens,) he covets; he is angry; he is grieved;
n'ani bu, he is tired of wailing; n'ani kuni, he is sleepy,

n'ani all, apae, atew, he is intelligent, shrewdy cunning;

n'ani gyina (ne ua, ne kurom), he longs for {his mother, his home);

n'ani so (me), he respects, honours (me);

ixixwi gye, ka, he rejoices, is glad, is merry;

n'ani dwo, he is tame, 7nild', (odwo, he is meek;)

n'ani da ho, ka fam\ ka ase, he is sober, modest, quiet;

n'ani ye den, ye hyew, ye krllmaknlma, he is bold, fierce, unruly, wild\

ii'ani wu, n^anim gu ase, he is ashamed.

4. N'anim' ye duru, he is serious, venerable;
n'anim ye hare, he is lightminded.

o. N'ani so biri no, he is giddy, n'ani so da ho, he is awake;
n'ani so atow, he has recovered, come to himself (from a swoon);
n'ani so ka (= no tirim kii), he is cracy\
n'ani so ye krakra, he is in anguish, anxiety;
n'ani so ye sakasaka, he is bewildered',
n'ani so aterew no, aye no tetere, he is absent, ivandering;
n'ani so ye no ya, he is astonished',
n'ani so nye, n'ani so aye yiye, he is tipsy.

G. N'ilno ye den, birebire, kiirokiiro, perepere, he is quarrelsome,
n'ano ye duru, he is not talkative-, [talkative;

n'ano tew, awo (wose), he is eloquent;
n'ano ye dew, dokg, fr^mfrem, he is a flatterer;
n'anom ye no de(w), he likes dainties, is dainty-mouthed, lii'kerisk;
n'anom akum, he has lost his appetite;
n'anom atew, he has recovered his appetite.

7. N'aso ye den, anyin, asen, asiw, asorow, awu, he is disobedieni;
n'asom' adwo no, he is peaceful, hajypy.

4

1

§ 218. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 1^7

8. Ne kon do, his neck (ihroai) loves (deepens?), Le. he covets, lusts for\
ne koh asen, he is stiff necked, stiffhearted, headstrong, stuhhorn;
lie kohmu ye den, he is strong, powerfuL

9. Nebo ahh, he is out of breath',

ne bo fono no, he feels inclined to vomit',

ne bo afuw, ahuru, he is angry ;

ne bo ad wo, he is appeased, composed, sedate, contented',

ne bo ato (ne yam), he is, contented, well pleased-,

ne bo ye duru, he is hrave, courageous.

10. Ne were ahow, he is sorrowful; ne were fi, he forgets]
ne were akyekye, he has been comforted.

n. Ne yam' hyeliye no, twit wd no, he is compassionate-,
ne yam ye no hyeewhyeew, his conscience torments him ;
ne ydm' y^,he is good-hearted, henign, benevolent, liberal, charitable,
ne ydm* ye hwene; he is illiberal, stingy, niggardly.

12. Ne nsdm' ye den, he is illiberal, near, close, hard- fisted ^ fast-handed;
ne nsam tee, he is liberal, generous, bountiful, munificent;

ne nsa ka, (his hand touches,) he obtains, receives ;
ne nsa nnk, (his hand does not rest,) he is diligent

13. N'abdsam' dtu, he has been discouraged, disheartened.

!S18. The fifth kind of verbal phrases has a specific compound
objcd (a personal noun or pronoun in the possessive case, and the
name of some part of that persons body).

1 . In some of these phrases, the person denoted by the attribute in
the compound object is identical with the subject. In this case we give
the examples only with pronouns of the 3d pers. sing.

a. We first mention the verbs made reflexive by taking the reflexive

pronoun, which belongs to this kind of objective complements. E. g.

Ohyehye neho, oho4hoa neh6, okyere neh6, 6mlL neho so,
he boasts, brags, vaunts, shows himself, exalts himself;
okit neho, he moves, stirs, is active; onu neho, he repents;
osakrd neho, he disguises himself', otwa neho, he t\irns round.

Some intransitive verbs may thus be made reflexive M^ith almost
the same or with an altered meaning; as,
Oddn koo nif^ he turned to the right',
qdihix neho kg6, he turned and went off;
gdan'n^n neho, he does some business, he trades, traffics.

b. Phrases in which other nouns (of those mentioned in § 216, 4)
occur, are the following:

Wdfa ne tirim' Qie has taken in his head,) he recollects, remembers ;
Mvih ne tirim\ (fie looks in or into his head,) he tries to recollect;
gbg ne tfrim (pgw), he {ties a knot in his head,) devises, plans out;
otu ne tirim agyina, he (goes to council in his head,) devises, deli-
berates; he examines himself.
Hem. In the two last phrases ne tirim' is not an object, but an ad-
junct of place, or an attribute of the object pgw and agyina.

1^8 SYNTAX. §219.

O'gye n'ani, lie rejoices, amuses himself'^

ototo or otwii ii'ani, he looks ahoat;

oyiyi (n')ani, he is heedless, careless;

ofc.w or ototew n^\iii, lie ftpens his etfes; he is ravliovs^

orhvo ir.-uii, he moderales his haste, his demand.

Oniniiil or okuni n'aiiini, he darkens or disfUjures his fare;

r»t(^w n'aniin, he is frieiidli/, (jrariojfs, rjteerf'fd]

oyi (n'janini (with a succof^din*^ vcM-h), he Juts the decided intention

(to do soniothiiig"), he does it o/tenlp, frankhj. *

Oyi n'ano, he speaks or /deads for himself,
Oyi ii'aso. lie is heedless, eareless:^
okyo/i iraso, he (bends his ear,) perverts jndijnanilx
ospHMi n'aso, he pri'ks np his ears, listens to a. sound from a distant::
owoi'i ii'aso, oyo aso, oyc n'a.so (loinin, koinni, he listens tiltenlivehf.
Ot(>to nc kon, he looks ahont in a hainfhfi/, impudent^ conlemptnons

manner ; obo no kon, he talks, (jives utterance to his t/idiajitls.
Osi lie l)o, he dares, attemj}ts (sc. o-ne no boko, to fajlit a'ilh him):
ota no i)o, he sets his heart at rest, roni poses his miiul,
^ ^yi no yam (with a snocoodinj;' vorh) ///• does from his hearty sinrereUj.
Oyi no nsa (a dooont oxj)rossion - odi di), he eats, \irillinjlti/.
Oj^ow no nsain, he is liberal, mnni/ireid; he is slaek in n'orkimj.
AVajja abaw, he has drairn o/fhis hands, has ijiren it up in despair.

2. In so mo of thoso phrasos, tho objert roiors to a porson different
from the subjct. In this caso wo "ivo tho oxamplos witli the pronouu
of tho 1st, [>ors. sinj^. for tho ohjoct; as,

Onim {or walifi) mo tirim, he knon\s my mind {my faithfulness).
Oso m'ani, he pleases na"., oyi m'ani, // displeases me,
Okyi m'anim, he dislikes, shnns, detests me\
otiatia ni'anim, he abuses, anitemns, scorns me,
• Aduan no ag-yo m'anom, this food h((S become my favourite dish.
Xsom no aka in'ano, I can repeat the nvrds fluently,
Otutd in\ano, he arruses me falsely. Okasa m'ano, he is my spokesmuti.
Otwo m'aso, he pulls me by the ear, i. e. he punishes me,
Ofuw mo bo, ohuru mo bo, (oyi mo abufnw,) he excites my tuiffvr]
otu mo bo, he disheartens, discourayes, frightens, appals me.
Ohow mo woro, (oyi mo aworehow,) he (jrieves me\
(>kyokyo mo woro, he comforts, consoles me.
Otu m'abasam, he disrourayes, disspirits me.

!210» In tlio sixth kind of verlad phrases, a specific eowjwund
subject or object, and somo similar or other specific complemvnl^ an'
combinod, some of them containing: two verbs. (Any of tho kiuds
montioncid in § 211-218. 220. is combined with any other of them, or
with any complement or adjunct). E. g.

No hu aba n(i ho bio, he has reovered from his sickness;

no ho kk no ho, he is haj)j)y, content, awl I jdeased:

no ho hybi no lio, he has (dl he muds ;

no ho tua no lio, he is fat, well fed, corpulent:

219. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COMPLEMENTS. 129

oda neho so, he is on his guard;

ode iieLo to me so, he commits himself to we, confides in me.

Ne ti n'so no sod, he is lightminded,

N'ani bii me so, he rememhers me;

nam ba neho so, he comes to himself ] Act. ]J2, 11, Luk, J5, 17,

n'ani bo me so, his look falls on me;

n'ani da me so, he hopes, confides in me;

n'ani da neho so, he is cautious, heedful, wari/;

n'ani akii me so, n'ani atg me so dwen, he stares at me;

n\ini aka m'anim, he h(is become confidenti<d or familiar vith me\

n'ani apa me so, he has forgotten me;

n'ani atni ne nton, he is su2)errilious;

n'ani atii ato ne nsilm', n'ani ye no ntirentirc^, n'ani ye no totototo,
eye no aniani, he is in anxiety, grief ronfusion, j^crjdexittf^ con-
sternation &c.

ode n'ani to me so, he confides in me, sets his trust in me;

fa wo ani to m'anim ye ma no, do him this favour for my sake;

obu n'ani gu(. .)so, he winks at (it);

oka n'ani ^n so, he shuts his e/jes (for sleep, in death);

omua ukni tew, he twinkles ;

okoyi n'ani so kakra, he is going to take a nap;

oda or odeda n'ani akyi, | , , , ,

1. iv , ,y , u > J \' \ he or site has wanton eties:
odwudwo nam akyi nantew, | ^

oji:yen or otu or otutu n'ani fwe me, he fixes his eyes on me, regards

me fixedly, steadfastly;
opupuw' n'ani (kasA) kyeree me, he spoke roughly to me : den. 4:2,7.30,
wayi m'ani ahy6 me nkyenmu, he has disappointed me;
ontwa n'ani iVfwe n'akyi, he is constant, steadfast;
esi n'ani so, // comes into his mind;

nsa atew n'ani so, he has hecome sober from his intorication.
Obere n'ano ase, he moderates his speech;
gn(to)to n'ano ase, he does not hold his tongue;
ontow n'anom toa ma, he did not speak a word;
wgnkasa wonh6 ano, they don't speak ivith each other;
otutu m'ano sisi, he distorts, confounds what I am saying,
Oprapraa n'asO aky\ (de guu so), he did not listen to, would not

hear or took no heed of it at all.

Ne bo da ne yam', he is of good cheer or courage, easy, careless;
ne bo atg ne yam, he is of good cheer, happy, well content, his heart

is at ease;
ne koma apae ne yam, he is utterly terrified;
Qbere ne bo ase, he relaxes his anger;
gtg {or gto) ne bo ase, he is patient;
otg ne bo ase kye, he is long suffering;
otwa me bo to me yam, he appeases me.
Ne nsa hyia ne ho, he provides with his own hand for all his wants,

2SO« A seventh kind of verbal phrases consists of a ;iri//''i)wf/ and
I SHpplement(d verb.

9

130 SYNTAX. § 221.

1. The supplemental verb enlarj^es th(» notion of the ])rincipal one
so as to form a new notion.

A common objective complement is joined (or understood) eitlier to

the principal verb, as in

gye di, gye tie, lo believe \

ka fwe, so fwe, hiiani tie, lo lasle, U'lf (§ 110):

or to the sup})lemental verb, as in

koto sere, to Hupplicaie\ su fre, to implore]

kasa kyere, io inslnwt (§ 109, 31).

hu ma, te mti, to sympathize icith:

d i ma, kasa ma, to act or speak for, interrede for, defend, advocate.

2. The suppletnetital verb adds some jiarticular circumstance or

general relation to the notion of the i)rincipal verb, like an adjunct

of manner or time, E. g.

kasa sail mu, kasa ti mu, to speak with repetitions \ (W6kAsa
sail mu pi, you repeat too often what you have said already.)
kasa sie, to make a previous agreement',
ka sie, to foretell, predict', di sie, to settle before-hand.

Adiasie (= asem a wadi asie) n'ye 'di-nfi, a matter settled before-
hand is not difficult to be adjusted.

I'he verb sie may thus be added to other verbs, and it may have
tlie time or event, for or against which something is d(me, after it as
a comptctncnt, constituting with it a trrmindtivc adjunct to the prin-
cipal verb ; see g 243 b, and Hem.

CHAPTER V.
Extension of the Predicate.

^^], Tim predicate, whether it consist of a single verb (§163)
or have complements with it (§ 198), may be extended by adjuncts,
i. e. by words which express any circumstances of 1. place, 2. time,
3. manner, 4. caii,se &c.

Th(^se adjuncts are not necessary to comph^te the sense of the verb,
but are accessory parts of the predicate.

Hem. Ill the fohowiiig paragraphs (222 — 243) wo treat the circumstances of
place, time, mafiner, cause dr. more in their logical, than in their c/rammatieal
relation to the ])rincipal verb of the sentence, i. e. we coniine ourselves not only
to siicli expiTssions as are obviously adjuncts of n preiHcate, but nientioii also thow

cases in wliicli an adjunct in tlic Knglisli language is ex])resse(l in Tshi by on addt- -

tional predicate, co-ordinate (mostly in the form of a contracted sentetiee) to I

the principal one. Cf. §.245,2a. 2r)3'^- J

We c;dl the verb wliieh in sueli eiises ex])resses the- j)rineii)al action of the subject, 1

the principal verb, and the verb which ex])resses any cireumstane-t^ of that acb(Hi I

in the form of a co-ordinate ])redicate, an auxiliary, in some oases, the verb expn*" m

sini»* only a circumstance of an action is even the only predicate of the sentieiice| 1

taknig the infinitice of the verb that contains the action itself, as its grammatial m

1

§ 222. 223. SIMPLE SEKTEKCES. ADJUNCTS. 131

comz}lctntnt. — it is thoui»'ht. ronvt'iiient to have the diitorcnt ways of express] iiu*
the circumstances in question put to^^ether in this ))lace; only the eases in which
they are i'xpressed hy suhordiuate sentences will l>e reserved for the s^i^ 2<)<)--2S().

1. The AdjUHi-t of PI (ICO.

!2!2!3. 1, Adjfincls of jffdtj^ attached to the predicate, show a cir^
ciinistance of place in answer to the (questions: wkcre^ whither? whence?

2. They are expressed by nOHUs of place (absolute or with relation
to things and persons) or by pronouns an<l adverbs of place (§118.
122-125. 127.) either a. entirely equal in form to complements of place
(§ 207. 208), i. e. merely added to the predicate, without an additional
verb, — the only difference is, that the adjunct is not necessary to
the verb — ; or h. they are introduced by a /tX/Z/ar// ?^£;r^.s' [co-ordinate
to the principal], which take them as their complements.

We consider the latter case (h) as the rule, § 22;5. 224, and the
omission of the auxiliary verb (a) as the exception, § 225.

!2!2«$. These [co-ordinate, brj auxiliary verbs, alone or together
with the postposition used in the adjunct, in many cases answer to
English prepositions, cf. §117, ^.; in others, they have no equivalent
in English, the latter rendering the adjunct merely by an adverb.

'i'hey are taken from the locative verbs specified in § 208, viz.

1. wo; 2. nam, fa; these verbs refer the action, or the subject or
object of the predicate, to a place, fls going on or being there, (at,
in, on &c.) without sho"wing a direction.

3. si, gyina, combined with anahmu; these (»ither refer to rest in
a i)lace, or imply a direction,

4. ba, kg, used alone or as iugressivc prefixes (§ 96) with the verbs
si, dii, so, ka, pem and others; fwe, to, gu, kyene; these verbs
express direction to a place. Other directions are expressed by kycre
— towards; twa — across-^ tra — over, beyond; fi — from; &c.

liem. The auxiliaries fi, nam, and sometimes fa, with their comple-
ments, precede, the others succeed, the principal verb and its complement.

1.0'di ne dwuma wo ofie, he carries on his business at home.
O'di ne gua wg babi, he is 2)ursuin<j his trade somewhere.
Nwura refuw wg turom', weeds are shootiny up in the garden.
O'nya aduah' pi wg n'asase so, he obtains much food on his l(tnd.
O'turu ne bd wg n'akyi, she carries her child on her bach.

2. Onam mfenserem' kgg dan mu, heyotinto the room throtiyh the window.
Ofaa boil mu guane, or: oguan faA, bon mu, he fled throuyh the valley.
Menam fam' mebae, manifa nsuani, 1 came by land, not by water.

3. Yesu sii yen anaiimu wui, Jesus stood in our place died, i. e. Jesus

died in our stead.

4. Mignarec mebaa mi)orin6, 1 swam to the shore,
Oguan kgg ahabaii mu, he fled into the bush.
Otutuu mmirika koduu kurotia, he ran on to the end of the town.

132 SYNTAX. § 224. 225.

Otow' dua 110 fwoe lip, he felled the tree (to tlie ground).

Ohuriiw ill liyeii mii too pom', he H]>ran() from the ship into the sea.

AVobiiii ne iisii gun ii'dkyi, lltci/ tied /lis hands behind his hack,

Wotow no kyenoe tare no mu, he teas cast into the lake.

AVgtow won gun iisii no mu, theif were cast into the water,

Opot(>^ wo no too gya mu, he shook off the snake into the fire.

Otcrew' ne nsam' kyorec no, he spread forth his hands toward him.

Miguaree mitwaa asii no, / stvam throuqh that river,

Ohuriiw traa amoa no, he leaped over the pit.

Mifi Kiimase na mereba, 1 am romintj from Kumase.

Ofii dua so fSvee film' he fell down from a tree.

Olii (or ofi ?) ne ddn mu free me, he called me from his house, i. e.

he, being in his house, called vie.
()frec> me fii m'adwuma ano, he called me (aivay) from my tvork;

hut it seems more correct to use wo in such cases:
Ofree me wo m'ddwuma ano, he called me, heintj at my tvork.

Rem. Verhs like yi, ^y^-, to take out, off, away from, to resrue,
save from, may have the auxiliary wg or fi joined to them. E.g.
Oyil me fii m'dh6hiam\ he took me out of my trouhle.
Gyc me wg m'atilmfo nsam\ deliver me from my enemies!

^!S4. Two or more adjuncts of place may be combined. E. g.

Ofre me fi Ini ba ne nky^h, he calls me from here to him.
Oguan faa Dat4 kgg Osii, he fled hy (or via) Date to Osu,
Ofii Osu guah kgg Ada, he fled from Osu to Ada,
Otuu kwah iii ho faa Akyem kgg Dwaben wg Asante, he travelled

from thence through Akem to Dwahen in Asante.
Oguan baa me iiky^ii w6 me fi, he fled to me into my Ihouse,

225m '^riie auxiliary wg, sometimes also kg, is omitted (§ 222, a.)
1. after the principal verb, when the sense is plain without it, espe-
cially in the Akem dialect. E. g.

Mmofrd goru (wg) abgnten so, children are playing in the street-,
AVgdgyaw no (wg) ho, they have left him there.
Wgayi no ho, they have removed him thence (i. e. killed him),
Osomaa no (kgg) n'dfiiw mu, he sent him into his plantation,

2, When the adjunct of place, especially one of the pronouns ehS?

eh a, ehg, is emphatically put at the head of the sentence, followed

by na (§24t7, 4^. Mem), the auxiliary wg is always omitted. E.g.

EhA n^ nicyc adwiima, here 1 am working.
Eh6 n^ dye wo yaw'? where do you feel pain 'i^

(In *W6 he y^ wo yaw? lit. thy where i. e. what place of JfWir
hody causes you pain i^' the adjunct of place is converted into the subjeoi)

3. The adjunct of place may (without wg) precede the object of

the verb, and is then like an attribute to that object. E. g.

O'dwen ne komdm' asemmone =^ odwen asemmond wg n6 kftmilm*,
he devises evil in his heart.
Osere me hg ade = gsord ad<^ wg me ukyen, he hegs things of VHt

226-228. SIMPLE SENTENCES. ADJUNCTS. 133

2. The Adjunct of Time.

t2!2C>. Adjands of lime, attached to the predicate, show

1. Home particular y>o/M^ ov period of lime, answering to the question:
ivlien? (In a general way the time of an action is expressed by the
tenses.)

2. Duraiion of time, answering to the questions: liow lomj'^ since
when? till when?

4. Becjinnint], continuance or continual ion and end of an action
(without specifying a time).

3. RepelUion, answering ta the question: how often?

^27. Circumstances of time arc expressed

1. by nouns and adverbs of time, including nouns with postpositions,
as specified in §129.130.

2. by [co-ordinate] auxiliary verbs introducing such nouns; viz.

wo is sometimes used to introduce postpositional phrases answering
to P^nglish phrases with the prepositions at, in, on, after &c.
fi answers to the Engl, prepositions from, since]
kosi, kodu, besi, bedu, answer to the Engl. prep, till, until,
(The auxiliary f i usually precedes, the others succeed the principal verb.)

3. by co-ordinate verbs or verbal phrases combined with the prin-
cipal verb as auxiliaries, before or behind, or with its infinitive, in
which case the verb expressing time is the only verb of the sentence.

4. by adverbial sentences, on which see § 261 — 266.

5. sometimes by a co-ordinate predicate, beside those auxiliaries
(2. 3.), in a contracted or connected or unconnected sentence; see in
§ 253'^. 265, 1 Rem, a.

S28. Examples with merely adverbial adjuncts of time (§ 227, 1),
put before or after the subject with its predicate.

1. Adjuncts denoting a. point or period of time, or a succession of such.

Ene yebedu fie, to day we shall arrive at home,
Osii ato pi 'ne, it has rained much to-day,
Enera na ne ba kgyaree, yesterday his child fell sick.
Eden 'ti na wamma 'nera? why did he not come yesterday?
Ne-nnansct na mihd^l no, three days ago I saw him,
(--^ MihQu no, ne nnansd ni, or: nnansa ni a mihatl no.)
OkyCna anopa mesim', to-morrow morninfi I shall start.
Yen de, yebekg okyenakyi, we shall po the day after to-morrow.
Mereba mprempreii (Ak. seseara), I shall come immediately.
Mprempreh odan' neh6 ba hayi, na mprempren odah' n6h6 kg hayi
bio, he turns now here, now there.
Woamma ntem 'ne, you did not come soon to-day.
Mehkgg Akwdm' da or pen, / have never been in Akwam.
Ne mmofraase wansud biribi pa bi, he learned nothing in his youth.

134 SYNTAX. § 229. 230.

Ne kankyorokyero no, abo na wodc' low, akyiri yi ansa ua 4fef wode
dadc akoi'fibo poniao tow, at the very first, stones were discharged,
hut afterwards iron hidlets,

2. Adjuncts denoting duration,

Mintumi menye adwiima dd, 1 cannot alivajfs work.

Mokoliome kakra, / am (joim) to rest a little,

Obetra lia nnansa bi, lie will stay here some days.

Obedi ho nn«annu so nnansii, he will pass there In'o or three days.

Waye advVuma adcsae, he has worked all day (till nifjht).

]M6bchu anianc dadii, ye shall have tribulation ten days,

3. Adjuncts denoting repetition,

Woye sa' da, they often (or always) do so,

l)a afe wohycj fii, every year they eel eh rate a festirml.

AVoko Yerusalem da afriliyia, they went to Jerusalew every year.

]\lako ho m'pen abich', 1 have heen there twice,

4. Mixed examples.

Ol)ranna' akyi na osii to da, after thunder it always rains.

Ene wako asii preko pe, to-day she has heen for water only once.

!3^0« Adjuncts of time introduced by auxiliary verbs (§ 227, 2),

1. denoting duration by stating tlic time of befiinniny or end:
Oti ne mmofraase yarc, he is sick from his infancy,

Knrra mifii anopti meyee adwiima koduu anwiinimere, ene iiso maye
i"i nnonson mabesi nnonniim, na okyena moye mail nngnsoii makosi
nnonsia, yesterday I worked from mornini) till evenimj, to-day from
7 to 5 o'clock, and to-morrow I shall work from 7 to 6 o'clock.

l)i nokware kodu wum\ be faithful unto death,

2. denoting approjoimate duration (cfglGO, 4);

Wiiycj adwiima bcye so dadii, he has worked about ten days,
Wadi (be)boro nririliyia aduosia, he is more than sixty years old.

^30« Adjuncts of time expressed merely by verbs (§227,3.226,2.3.4.)

1. Indefinite duration of action expressed by kye, sec § 231 (107,
17.18.)

2. Bepetition of action (§107,20-22).

x\santefo ne Akyemfo any it nkoe, the Asantes have repeatedly fougM
(Jtfi ko Nkran, he often yoes to Akra. [with the A^etns.

Monsan mmu akontil' no bio, cast up tit at account apain,
Mekrl mitim' se: manhu, I repeat (hat I have not seen it,

3. Commencement of action (cf. § 107, 14. 15; the following examples-

partly belong to §229,1.)

Woanya rebo don, they are already rinijiny the bell.
Minnya minnuu ho e, 1 have not yet arrived at that point,
Wafi ase rckyerew ne nhoma, hehas beyun to writehis letter, (§214,1 J.)
Ofi baa hA enye 'ne, lit. he began came here it is not to-day \, e.

it is not only since to-day that the came here.
YA ho ara E'nyiresifo tumi mu fi yee den, from that time the Ewh

lish became more and more powerful.

§ 231. SIMPLE SENTENCK8. ADJUNCTS. 135

Eti ho iia W(')fii ase nyixk tiimi de-bepcm 'lujyi, from that time they
hcfjan to iiblain the power frhi'h they have unto this day.

KH lio ara iia Napoleon tiitni fi yey kose dTi koo so, from that time
the power of Napoleon was continually increasing.

4. Continuance aud continuation of action (§107,16).

Oda so da, he sleeps stilt. i\Ieko so magoru, 1 shall (JO on in playimj.
Wotoa so kcka asem, they continue their speeches.

5. Completion of action (§ 107, 1*.)).

Okan iihoina no wiei, nr: owiec nliOma no kan, he read the book

to the end, or he finished reading the hook.
Way(j n'adwiima awic, or: wawnj n'adwiima yij, he has finished his

work.

tmi. The verb kye, to last (lonfij, to he lonfj i. c. of lomj duration,
is ust'd in different ways:

1. As an independent intransitive ^\^vh^ it expresses, in a j^eneral
way, some duration of existence or of a stay in some place, whence
it may take a complement of place. E. g.

Woko a, nkye! wlien you (jo, do not stay away lony!

Di'i oko ho a, okye ho se, as often as he goes there, he stays there

very lontf. *

jMerenkye lia hio, 7 shall no more he here a lony time.
Okoo kurow bi so kokyi^h, he went to some town and staqed out lony.

2. As an independent causative and, therefore, transitive verb, it
takes an infinitive as its object, aud expresses that the action denoted
by that infinitive will not soon, or not easily, come to pass, or if it
is put in the ncjgative, that it will soon, or easily, take place. E. g.

L^kyee ne ba, he delayed his coming, did not come for a long time.

Pore yi kye bo sen kuriiwa no, this jar delays breaking surpasses
that jug, i. c. this jar is more durable than that jug.

Kuruwa a ete se yi nkye bo, such a jug as this here does not de-
lay breaking, i. e. easily breaks.

3. When following after a principal verb as an auxiliary [or co-
ordinate] verb in the same tense (or after a future tense in the con-
secutive form), it denotes some duration of the state or action expres-
sed by the former. E. g.

Oda kye, he sleeps long. Ote ho kye, he is sitting there a long while.

OtniiX ho kyee, he remained there a good while.

Wantrti. ho a nkye, he did not remain there long.

Meko makotrfi ho makye, / go to stay there for a long time.

4. When following after the affirmative preterit form of a verb, in
the affirm ati\'e perfect tense or in the negative preterit tense, forming
a sentence by itself, yet dependent from the preceding verb, it denotes
that the event of that verb has passed long or not long ago. E. g.

136 SYNTAX. § 232-234.

Mihdtl no dkye (pi, kakrd), I saw Mm a (long, sihort) while ago.
OhAd me enky^^e, he saw me not long ago,
Obda lia Akyg, lie came here lothg ago, or he is here since a fe/w/ time.
Wobde Akyc, it is long since you came (and have not came again).

5. When forniing a sentence by itself, preceding another, it denotes

the long, or not long, interval between the succeeding event and tlie

presence of the speaker or a previous event. E. g. |

Ebekye i^nsft nk wall 6, it mil he long before he finds (it).

Obd6 no, ekyijo ansil nj\ okoe (or greko) bio, tvlien he Irnd come,

he did no more go for a long time.
Wdba yi, ereiikyij nk obekg (or wako, gkg?) bio, having come note,

he will soon go again.
Owiii no, aukye na ne yere bae, when he had died, his wife came .

soon afterwards. \

Hem. In the cases 3.4.5. the verb kyo stands in the place of the
adjunct of time in English.

3. The Adjunct of Manner.

!$3!3. Adjuncts of manner, attached to the predicate, answer to
the questions: how? how mwh? in what manner'^ by what means? &c. i
and denote "

1. ynanner, either quality, or mode, way in which;

2. degree and extent; 3. certainty or prohahility;
4. manner, implying other circumstances:

a. means of action; h. price, exchange and substitution;
c. accompaniment or exclusion.

I333. Circumstances of manner are expressed

1. by nouns (without or with postjjositions) and arfytrfts of manner
and degree; §131-134.

2. by [co-ordinate] auxiliary verbs having such nouns as their
complements ;

3. by [co-ordinate] verbs or verbal phrases combined with the prin-
cipal verb, and commonly preceding it;

4. by adverbial sentences-, see § 2G7-273.

5. sometimes by co-o/7///ia/6^^»*e^(//6a/e^6*, not auxiliaries, in contracted
or connected sentences; see in § 253a.

^34. (1.) Adjuncts of quality or mode and way in which.

Examples of the case mentioned in § 233, 1. sec in § 131, 2. 3. 4. 133,
1.3.134,1.2. Adding some more, we put expressions according to
§ 233, 2. 3. together with some of them.

< Q'som no nokwdrem', he serves him truly, indeed (cf. § 236).
Osom no nokwdreso, he serves him faithfully.
Osom no sesekwas^m or mpasompaso, he serves him carelessly ^ n(A
earnestly or seriously ; = ohf w6 so usom no yiy^.

i

§ 235. SIMPLE SENTENCES. ADJUNCTS. 137

» Ofda no gberdnso, he took it hy force, forcibly; ^ ode ntintiraaninr
gye^ ne nsam' ade, he took his things from him hy violence.

• Anuanom no gyee yen few so, the brethren received us yladly;
2 wgde few ^yQ(i n'asem no, they tfladly received his ivord.

2 Ode ^nigye kgg ne kwdn, he went his ivay rejoicing,
' Okgo ne nky^h nnAmso, he went to him couroijeously ;

2 ode nnam pa liyida won, he met thetn ivith good courage'^

3 gnam nnamso kgo ne nkyeh, he went in boldly unto him.

* Qy^ "o brgfom'; "^osfid Brgfo ye; or: gfwe Brgf6 de so ye, he
does it in the FAiropenn fashion; he imitates the Europeans in
doing it; he copies it from the Europeans.

2 Yiye k gyee won no, wgde yee no sa ara, or: '^ wosusuw' so yee

no bi, the good he had shown them, they showed him likewise

(requited it to him).

^ Obati me so mnofirim', \ 7

o ~ , , 1 , I ^ ^ \ he came upon me unawares.

3 gpatuw baa me so, | -'■

' OwiVi preko pe or afreso, ^ gpatuw wul, he died suddenly;
' owuu awusin, he died a sudden death.

2 Ofree me wo koko/im' )7 ,j j n i i t- 1
,"1.""' ^ " ' X* ^ \ he called me seer etiiL clandestineiu.

3 ohintaw or gnam ase tree me, ) ''^ ^

« Ofwe^no dill II, §134, 1."

^ ogyeiV n'ani fwee no, he looked closely at him.

' Ka no pefe! * Pae mu kfi! speak it out, tell it plainly!

' Ka no y'xyC'l 'Tew w'ano kasa! tell or speak it distinctly!

^ San wo n6 mii kasa! ^ Kasa ma wgnte! speak distinctly!

3 Onyame na gclom yee no sa (m^k me),

God graciously made it thus (for me).
3 Miyi me yt'im' meda wo ase, / thank you heartily.
- 3 Ne yere de gdo yii ne yam' fwee no,

his wife nursed him with loving and self-denying care.
> O'du n'anim' nkakra-iikakra, he gets On by degrees, by little and little.
2 Ode sfiara nyiu^ won so tumi, thus he gradually got power over them.
The examples in § 209, 1.2. may also be taken here.

^3t>« (2.) a. Adjuwts of degree, showing the intensity of an action,
sUte or (luality. Examples of § 238, 1 . see § 133, 2. 3/>. 4. § 1 34, 3c;.

'OsiVi pi, he wept mwh. (Osui dennen, he wept aloud.)

Mabere k.\kra, 7 am a Utile tired.

Okw^n no ware dodo, the way is very or too long.

Ensono ne kyere yi dodo biara, his doctrine differs not very much.

Wganye won bone dodo bi, they did not trouble them very much.

Wgawie won ase tore kora, they were utterly extirpated.

Kurow no ahyew dwerebe, the town is completely burned down.

^Okasa a, yekame ate, when he speaks, we scarcely hear it.

Dahomefo nneyee kiime aye se Asantefo de, the doings (manners)

of the Daho means are almost the same as those of the Asantes.
Ekame ma aye du (Ak. gkama ma n'ilye dii), // makes nearly ten.
Ekame m^ anka wawie n'afuw hhtna dgw,

he has almost completely cut his tvhole plantation.
A'ka kakrii na woamk maddh Kristoni, Acts 26, 28. 29,

1 38 SYNTAX. § 236. 237.

WotVvi'e no ma ekda kfima sc iia gtoe, they jlO(j(jed him nearly

to death,
A'ka-kftnia ria afV no awi'c dii no, okaa kakra sfe ma wok6 faa

nnian no nlihia, toivard.s the end of that year they had already

ronqueved almost the ichole country.
Wori'ko no, okAh kCinia [F. okaa d^ ^^ sij) m^ won usil ka^ ghene,

tit the hidtle they almost cauyht the kiny.
h. Adjuncts of extent, sliowinj^ the extent or limitation of a state-
ment to a certain action, subject, object, place, time &c.
Examples see § i:34, ^Ut.h. Cf. § 277.

^lintumi memma, f^ye kyena, / cannot come except to-morrow,
(jryc ha nko nti yesi dan a ebeye yiye,
only here we may conreniently build a house.

'-. As Adjunrts of extent (or concern) we mention also

abstract nouns added to the verbs se, to he equal, kyen or sen, to

."^nrjMiss, sliowin<2^ the quality, state or action in which the subject equals

or surpasses the object. E. g.

Ose no ahogden, he equals him in strength.
L^kyen no ahogle, he surpasses him in heauty.

Wosen me adidi a, meseii wo una, //' you surpass me ill eating^ I
surpass you in aleepiny. (Prov.)

Rem, The noun of relation so may be used by itself as a votnple-
mcnt (of comparison) to the same and some other verbs, forming
specific rerhal phrases (§213,214); as:

ese so, ebg so, it is equal; eboro so, ekyen so, it e Cecils.

ti^O. (3.) Adjuncts of certainty or continycncy.

Examples see also § 135.

]\Iahfi no nokwarem', 7 hare seen him indeed, certainly.
Waka sit' ampa, he has really said so.
Ebia {or sese) onni fie, may be he is not at home.
Sesekwri bi menya nsji matg anaV
shall 1 perchance yet paimtvine to buy'^

*Z*A7m (i:.) Adjuncts of manner denoting the instrument or means

of action. Of. § 108, 26. 27. 131, 1.

Ob<')g me kutruku. kutrumoa, twere, he struck me with his fist &c.
Oponkg too no anankoti, a horse kicked him.

\\vn\ we have rather an object, or a specific complement.
Of wee no mpire, gkiiit no mma, he jloyyed him (with a whip, a rod).
Ode pomd bog me, he struck me with a staff.
On am atoro so yii neho fii asem no mil, he extricated himself from

the matter by a lie (or lies).
Yede tow yi yi yen konmu afod, by this tribute we avert the SiVOrd

impendiny on our necks.
OkflA sa de kyekyee me were, by sayiny this he comforted me.

b. Adjuncts of manner implying jrrice, exchanye^ suhstitution.

Metgg gde yi {\bogdeh, 1 bought this yam dearly (at a high price)'

i

§ 237. SIMPLE SENTENCKS. ADJUJJCTS. 139

Wiiiiyii 110 f ow or abogmcrew, he has (jot it cheap or at a low price.

Manyji no kwa or teta, / ()ot it for nothimj.

Mato 11 ho (mam^) dare asitl, 1 have houffht oil for six dollars.

Ode dwoasiiru too ntama, he homjht doth for four ackies.

Otog asase no mae beye se dwga, he bought the land for about
cifjht acJcie^'.

Medc sika pi metge, 1 boiujht it for a (jood deal of money.

Wcltgh abiirow' (agye) ddre anah, he has sold corn for four dollars.

Otgh' ka no maa ne ygiiko ^yee dare fa, lie sold the ring to his
friend for half a dollar.

Mama no aberckyi niasesci oguantch, 7 have given him (or exchan-
ged fvith him) a goat for a sheep.

^Fede ddre dii mescsaa sika mfuturu, / exchanged ten dollars for
gold' dust.

Onifiii me kyew de sii diiku anahmu, or: ode kyew sii me di'iku
anah mil, instead of a handkerchief he gave me a cap.

\}y^j abofra no, ne na dii bene no maa no, whilst lie was goiing, his
mother reigned for him i. e. in his stead.

A^yonkwii no wii maa yen^ the Saviour died for us.

Yesu sii yi^n anahmii wui, Jesus died in our stead.

'•. Adjuncts of inanner implying accompaniment (of objects, states,
actions) or exclusion and omission (of objects).

Ode dgm kese tun won so sd, he went to war against them with a

great armif.

Ne ba nso wo in' {^^ wg mil) kge, his son also went.in it (or, with them).
Ok<M'! bi, he went likewise. Ok.ia wgh lio kge, he went with them.
Ne. Ii6 ye fe, na gwo sika kti bo, he is handsome and rich too.

Fhllcm. lU.
Wogyi'e wi'ase tiimi kaa bf), lliey obtained ivorldlif power besides.
Eyi hliina hkamfuaw, gyare nso, beside all this^ he is also sick. § 134/>.
Mede awcrebow yi ara mekg gda nih, with this grief 1 shall go

into the grave (or, 1 will go doicn into the grave mourning).
Ode aui^yo kese wui, he died with great joy fidness.
Anoina de akgneaba na ehwene berebuw, by going and coming a

bird weaves its nest.
Wgfaa sa traA ofie, they took (it) so (scil. as tbey bad it) remained

at home i. e. thus they rather stayed at home.
Wgfraa wgh a wgba iiomii hAh aduah' to, they came to buy corn

among those that came. Gen. 4 J^, 5.

O'liiiw fam' da, he blows (off wbat is on) the ground lies down, i. e.
he sleeps on the bare ground. Ycda nti'iw, we sleep without lire.
r Woanya wobo a, to wo poh mn da, //' you are rich, shut your
I door sleep, i.e. sleep with your door shut.

I Woadi agyaw me, ilwy have eaten (have left me i. e.) without me.
I Obf hkw^ti (hkwae, nnyaw,' iisiane) kokfirobeti in'mo j)nw,
I nobody leaves aside (omits, passes by) the thumb lies a knot, i. e,
I nobody ties a knot without the thumb.

B Dna biat-a nsow nnya hfwireh da, no tree ever bears without
m (having had) flowers,

L

140 . SYNTAX. §238-240.

4. The Adjunct of Cause.

2SHm Adjands of cause, attached to tlie predicate, answer to
questions corresponding to the local questions whence? whither? viz.
the questions: /ro//2 what cause or reason':^ why? of what material?
to what purpose? for what? for whom? They denote:

1. a real cause, being either (a.) the natural cause, the origin or
occasion of an event in nature or history, called the eflPect, result or
consequence; or (h.) the motive of an action; or

2. a material which is used up for obtaining the designed thing;

3. a possible cause, or condition ]

4. an adversative cause, or concession;

5. a final cause, or an intention or purpose (aim, end, design).

I339, Circumstances of cause are expressed

1. by nouns (or pronoxms) with the postpositions nti (sometimes
introduced by the auxiliary verb siane or fi with the impersonal pre-
fix e- beginning the sentence), so, ho, mu, (sometimes introduced by
the auxiliary v. wo or fi); §136, 1.

2. by a few adverhs, as, kwa, teta, hunu &c. §136,2.

3. by the conjunction \\h. (from the verb de) — in a few cases.

4. by [co-ordinate] auxiliary verbs or verbal phrases, usually con-
nected with complements and either preceding or succeeding the prin-
cipal verb;

5. by a noun-sentence with the postposition nti. §255, 6a. 275, 1
Item. 2, 279 Hem, 2. 3,

6. by adverbial sentences. § 274-280.

7. by co-ordinate predicates, not auxiliaries, in contracted or connec-
ted sentences; see in § 253a.

!«S40« (1.) Adjuncts containing a real cause.

a. Aw6w no nti okoyaree, fr07n or on account of the cold weather

he fell sick.
N'dhofwi 'ti odi hia, by his debauchery he has become poor.
Esiane ne nneyee nti, wotan no, because of his doimjs they hate Jum.
Nkoas^m so na ok6 no fi bae, out of the slavery question that war arose.
Wgk6e wg so, they quarreled about it.
Oda no n'ay^mye so ase, he thanks him for his kindness,
Mabcre no h6, I am tired of him.

Wannyit aguddi no ho rafkso bi, he had no profit from the trade.
Owg de ahoyeraw' na gkd, the snake bites when being troubled.
Ode ahometew dii neh6 dgra, from despondency he killed himself
Obgg ne nua din bae, lit. he made mention of his brother came, i. e.

he came on account of his brother.

Q'klL no sd kw^, he spoke so without foundation in reality.
W6tan me kwft, they hate me without reason, Cf. § 243 c.

i

§ 241-243. SIMPLE SENTENCES. ADJUNCTS. 141

1). Nitan iiti wokiim' no, through hatred they killed him,
Aliantaii iiti g-ne bi iVk^, out of pride he agrees tvilh vohodi/.
EhQ nti wokoliintawe, for fear they hid themselves Ct*. §255,Ga.
Woremti mmara ninviima rau mmu onipa biara bem, by the deeds

of the late there shall no man he justified. (Horn .V, J?OJ
Won meiieasi* retow ne siikom, their throat languishes (j)anls, gapes)

with or from thirst. ^

Wgnia^ won mo ne ko or due ne ko, they oongraiulated or condoled

them on account of the fighting.
Munnue ne adwumaye, he pitied on account of your working.

c. Ntakara na wgde liQ anomd, a bird is known by its feather.^.
Won aba nfi mo le behu won, by their fruits ye shall know thenf.
Mmara so na wonam hu bone, by the hnr is the kniiuiedqe of sin.
Rom. r?, 20.

S41. (2.) Adjuncts denoting a material.

Oyee kaneadnd no nhhi/i sika, or, ode sika yee kanej\dua no nb.,

he made the whole candleslirk of gold.
Wgde ntama agowagow ye nlioma, paper is made of r(tgs.

24:2. (3.) Adjuncts containing a condition.

Abofra no ho n'tg no, ^ye ne ub. nkyen, the rhild does not feel at
ease^ except (when it is) with its mother.
(Here the adjunct is elliptical, standing for a sentence = gye se
gwg ne n^ nky^ii.)

The adjunct of condition is usually expressed by adverbial or ellip-
tical sentences, see § 276.

(4.) Adju7icts containing a concession.

Eyi nhlna gykbaw, gda so te ho, noth withstanding all this, he is
still there.
The adjunct of concession is usually expressed by a co-ordinate
sentence, see § 278.

!S43« (5.) Adjuncts implying purpose or intention are chiefly ex-
pressed by adverbial sentences (§ 279. 280) ; but here we give examples
of such cases

a. in which a noun witli a postposition denotes the thing to he ob-
tained by the action; or

b. in which an auxiliary verb, usually with its complement, shows
the object for ivhich the action is intended, towards or against which
it is directed (the terminative adjunct) \

c. in which adverbs show the absence of purpose.

a. N'anoduah' nti gsom no, he serves him for his daily food.

M'atade so na wgbg ntonto, for my vesture they east lots.
/>. Wgkye me ntama mu fa, they part my garments among them.

Okye^ aduarV no mu m^^ won, he served out the food to thetn.

^"^oy^G nhomatow ma^ gbgdamfo, card-playing was invented for a
madman.

142 SYNTAX. § 243.

Yesere wo a ni it abidt'o, tvc entreat thee fo r the poor.

O'yij adwuma ma no nua. he worh^fi for Ju's brother.

Woyo ado yi ama bona? for fvhonf do yon make this thing?

Mey{^ ma fa, 7 make it (that 1 ma\f take it, i. o.) for myself.

Adwuma yi h6 ifni mRso m'mjl mn,

there is no pro/it from this irork for yon.
Nea onim papayo na oiiyo no, oyo bono ma no,

to him that knows to do yood and does is not, to him, it is sin.
Wonsiosie wonbo nsio noa oboba no, they shall 2^ I'ep are themselves

for (or ayainst) the thinys that ivill come.
Obodboa aburow' auo sio okombero, he gathers corn against the

(expected) time of scarcity. Maka ma sic, I have told it before.
Wokasa byeo no or tiaa no, they spoke against him,
Wamuna a bye me, he has darkened (his fare) i. e. he fronus

upon me.
Wotow tiio kycre borobene, they fire guns in honour of the

governor.
Otow' tiio boo n6 nua, he fired a gun hit his brother ; =

gtow' no nud tiio, he shot his brother.
Okfta ntam guii no so, he conjured him.
Yesu b o nnipa ogye d i n baji asase so,

Jesus cxmie on earth for the salvation of men, _
c. Wasee ne sika teta ara kwi, he spoiled his money for nothing, to

no purpose.

Hem. 1. Tbe terminative adjunct may sometimes interchange with
a simple object, or with an adjunct of cause (§240); e.g.

No bo afiiw abye me = ne bo afiiw mo, no bo afuw (wo) me ho, lie

is angry with me.
Osd ma ne nua = osil ne nua, osCi ne nua bo, he weeps for his brother.

Hem. 2. In some of tbe sentences under b. and Hem. 1., c. g. gky^o
aduaiV no mu ma^ won, osu ma ne nua, we might be inclined to con-
sider SvgiV or 'no nua' as a complement of tbe principal verb (au
indirect object, dative or terminative object, object of concern and direr-
tion, cf. § 200, 1 c.) , introduced by the auxiliary verb m a, in other
cases by sie, bye, tia, — and not as an adjunct; but this would not
do throughout, and we prefer calling every enlargement to a predic.ite,
which is not a necessary complement of the verb, an adjunct. Cl'.

!Maye kyew mamtl no, I have made a cap for him;

mayo ky6w mafa, 1 have made a cap for myself.

If we would call 'mama no' a dative object, introduced by an auxi-
liary, we cannot apply the same expression to 'inafa'; again, Nve
cannot consider 'mama no' as a principal sentence, only co-ordinate
to the jjreceding, which would be 'mode mama no, / have given it tO
him^ \ so nothing remains but to designate both additions to the seU"
tence 'maye kyew' as adjuncts.

I I

j

§ 244. 245. SIMPLE SENTENCES. CO-ORDINATE PARTS. 143

CHAPTER VI.

Subordinate and Co-ordinate Farts of Simple Sentences.
Order of Words. Emphasis. .Ellipsis.

1. Snhordinaie Parts of Simple Sentences.

S44* The principal parts of a sentence (the stthje't and the jn'c-
di'(de^ §148.155,1) may have accessory parts subordinate to thoni.

1. In the predicate, when it does n6t consist of a verb only, the
romplements and the adjtiucts are subordinate to the vcrh.

2. The. altrihnles are subordinate members of the snhjerl^ or of tlie

romplcment, or of a noim in the (idjunct^ or of another (fttr/hnffH". noun.

Hem. The subordination may be of the first, second, third or I'ourtii
dejj^ree, according to the distance from the superordinate word. K. *^.

12 1 u a 1

Me wura apafo akatua so, the irages of w?/ Wffsiers hi/toiirrrs nrv
ronsiderahle.

(Jte P'arao abrafo mu ])anyin fi, lie iras in the honsv of the rhief

2 t :i

(tynonij Vhanioh^s executioners.

2. Co-ordinate Farts of Simple Sentem^es.

!S4o« 1. Two or more suhjerts, having the same jjredicate, are
co-ordinate. (The single nouns or pronouns are then nnmibers of a
compound subject; § 161, 2.) Tliey are connected by the conjunctions
ne, and; ana, anase, or.

In a succession of more than two members, the conjunction ne may
be omitted, except before the Last member.

a. The combination is essential for a given sentence, when the

predicate referring to it could not properly be a})plied to a single

member. E. g.

Anan ne aniim ye akron, four and five are nine.
0-ne Yaw ne Kofi se (or sesee), he and Y.and K. are like each other.
Kwasi ne Kofi ye tijienfo, Kw. and K. are equal in .si::e.
Ye-ne won abom' bio, ire and tlieji are united (reconciled) afjain.

h. The combination is accidental, when the predicate is true of every

single member. In this case two (or more) sentences are contracted

into one. E. g.

Kofi ne ne nua aba, Koft and his brother have come.
Ne yere, ne mnia n^^. ne yonkonom wo ho,
his wife, children and friends are there.
Ohserv. The attributive pronoun is repeated before every single
member.

144 SYNTAX. §246.

2. When two or more verhs, not connected by conjunctions, have
the same subject, we distinguish two cases:

a. Essential comhinations. One verb is the principal, and another
is an .auxilikry verb, supplying, as it were, an adverb of time or
manner (§ 230. 231. 233, 3. 234.), or forming or introducing a comple-
ment (§ 205, 5. 206, 2. 3. 208, 3. 4.) or adjunct (§ 223. 224. 229. 243//j;
or the second verb is supplemental, forming part of a verbal phrase
(§110). The actions expressed by both verbs are simultaneons and
in an internal or inseparable relation or connection. In this case, the
auxiliary or supplemental verb is co-ordinate only in form, bnt sub-
ordinate in sense, whether it be preceding or succeeding the principal
verb. E. g. j

Oguare baA, mpoano, Tie swam to the shore. § 223.

O'ye adwiima ma ne nil, he (Corks for his mother. §243i^.

Wonni n'anim' n'twa nko asuogya noho, thefj shall (fo hefore him

(over the lake) unto the oilier side. Mat. 14, 22.
Pae mu ka kyere me, lit. si)Ut in (i. e. cut it open) speak show we, i.e.

tell me plainly!

When the subject is the pronoun of the 1. pers. sing., it is prefixed I

to every single verb. E. g.

Meguare mebae, 7 Sivam hither. Meye memi\ no. 1 do it for Inrn.
Midii n'anim' mitwae mekoo agya nohg,
I ivent over hefore him unto the other side.
Mepaeem' meka mekyeree no, I told him plainljf.

h. Accidental co^nhinations. Two or more predicates (verbs witli,
or without, complements or adjuncts), expressing different successive
actions, or a state simultaneous with another state or action, but hav-
ing the same subject, are merely joined together without conjunction
and without repeating the subject. In this case two (or more) sentences
are thrown or contracted into one, and the verbs are co-ordifMte in
sense as well as in form. Cf. § 253. E. g.

Osgree guaree srae, he arose, washed (and) anointed himsdf,
Yesoree nt^m kgg ofie, we arose quickly (and) went home.
Otrjl^ ne pgnkg so guAhc, he sat upon his horse (and) fled.

Sometimes one action or state is simultaneous to the other, in which

case we often have a sinyle verb in Enj>:lish, together with a purti-

ciple or adjective. E. g.

Wgte hg resti, they sit there weep == weepim}.
Oyare da mpa so, he is sick lies on the bed, = he lies sick.
When the pronoun of the 1. pcrs. sing, is the subject, it is prefixed I
to every single verb (as in the case under a.). E. g.

Mesgre^ miguaree mesrae. Mesgree ntem mekgg fie.

Metnl^ me pghkg so migudne, I fled on my horse.

Mete hg mlresd. Meyare meda me mpA so, I lie (lay) sick.

§ 245. 24G. SIMPLE SENTENCES. COORDINATE PARTS. 145

H. Co'Or(i?H(il(! romplei/iCitls are for tlio most part accidoutal coiiibi-
natioiis. E. g.

Moiiyij no so kwankyoreto ue irawudifo,

^/e har.e heen notv his heb'dijcni and wurdcrers. Af-LT,:")^.
Woiiton no ne no yero no no mina no noa owo iiiiin.i,

Ihcf/ slhiU sell him and Jus wife and children and all thai he has.
Waton ne i'i, n'asase no no nnoema nhhi/i,

he has sold his honsCy his land and all his things.

Homo essential combinations are written as imperi'eet ccimponnds; e.j;-.

A noma do ako-no-aba na enwene berebiiw,
hy (joinfi and romiiiff the hird weaves Us nest. g2:)7r.

1. (^n-ordinate adjands are likewise accidental combinations, hi. g.

Me{\vef*\v{*e no (wo) of'ie ne wiirjlm\

7 soHfihl Juin in the house and in the field.
Ob.io Dwoda no Yaw' da ne Fida,'

he canw on Jlfondat/, Thnrsda// and Friday.
W(>i)ae ntem no f'ewso, they came (/uicJdy and (fladly.

(/O-ordinate adjuncts are also found witbout an inti'rvening conjunc-
tion, especially wben one of tbem is like au apposition to tli(». otber,
or expresses a part of tbe place or time denoted by tlio otber. E. g.

Wobyiaa ayeforo wo Kan a wo Galilea,

there was a marriafje in Cana of G-alilee.
Miyii wo (mifii) Misri asase so wo hkoafi mii, 1 hrowiht thee ont

of the land of Fj/ypty from the house of hondaye. Dent. 5, G.
(jl)aa 'nera anadwofa, he came yesterday eveniny.

5. Co-ordinate attrihutes.

a. Co-ordinate adjective attributes, see § 1H8.

h. Co-ordinate a})positions^ witb or witbout conjunction. E.g.

Munkyiji Androniko no Yunia, m'abusuafo ne m(^ yonko-pokyerefo
salute Andronicns and Junta, my kinsmen and mi/ fell ow^wi son ers,

c. (^)-ordinate attributive nouns are found before subjects, comple-
ments, adjuncts, attributes. E. g.

Ne yere ne ne ba wi'i anut ne were abow se,

his wifes and child's death have yrieved him much.
(Jte ne na ne n'agya asem, he hears his mother's and father's word,

i. <i. he is ohedient to father and mother.
Wosiee Yakob wo Abraham ne Isak asief,

flacoh fras buried in the buryiny place of Abraham and Isaac.
Sweden ne Norwegen bene din de Os'kar,

the name of the Iciny of Sweden and Nornuty is Oscar.

•>. I ley alar Order of Words. Combination of Differ en t Complements,

Adjuncts and Attributes.

*!i\i\» 1. Tbo usual succession of tbe parts of a sentence is;

10

146 SYNTAX. §247.

1. suhjed, 2. verh, 3. complement, 4. adjunnt,

AUrihnies closely join the noun to wljich they belong, either pre-
ceding or succeerling it. §l^i>. 100. 102.

Rem. 1. Adunv'ts of time often, and aduinels of cause with tL(>
postposition nti always, precede ihe subject.

Hem. 2. Adiands of place or lime sometimes y>rg<?erfe the cowplemeni i
like an attribute in the. possessive case. Cf. § 225, 3.

Dadewa atew nratadem' toknru, a nail has torn a hole inmif codf.
O'di afe noara sot()j)anyin, he ir((S Ihe high priest that same year.

2. Of two complements of the same verb, the dative precedes the

])assire object, and the pas.sive precedes the factitive object. § 205. 2(»C.

But when the passive object is introduced by the auxiliary de (or fa),

it precedes the principal verb with a dative object as well as with a

factitive ohjert. E. g.

Obuaa me asem hi, or ode aseni bi buaa me, he returned me a answer.
Wosii no bene, or.'^wodeno sii bene, they made him kintf.

o. Of different adjitnrts, that of manner usually precedes that of

nlai'e^ and both precede that of time, if the latter be not put at the

head of the sentence. On the adjunct of (?(nfS6' with nti, see 1 . 7^e^;/. /. I

Wosui se wo ho, they wept titer e mwh.
Osii ato })i 'ne, //. has rained mwh to-day.

W'.mi gyei so wo ho 'uera, 7 re'ui>'ed there very much yvsterduij.
Kne m'anf agye ha se, to-day 1 have t)een very ylad here.
(In this sentence ha is rather a complement.)

Kda no, obere ne kom nti otoo piti wo 'kwanmu,
///(// day he fainted on the icay, from nearrness and hunger.

Ne nti mahu a mane pi wj dae mu 'ne, J have suffered many Ihimjs
this day in a dream tterause of him. Mat. 27^ 10.

When the auxiliary verb de or fa introduces an adjuvct of frnmner
(instrument or accompaniment), or of cause (motive, reason, material),
it precedes the principal verb with its passive object. § 237. a. ^^ 240.(//.

'J'he auxiliary fi, witii adjuncts of pla.re, usually j)r<'cedes, — but
the auxiliaries wo, ba, k o, besi, kodii, and otiiers, with their acljuiK'ts,
always succeed the piincipal verb (and its com})hMn<uits). §223.221.

4. Emp/ia.sis.

tjf T. Any j)art of a sentence may be, made emphatic by pl.ii'iHp
it before the, si'utence in an absolute way, as if it were n seiitt'tiH'
by itscdf, and supj»lying it in its regular place by a pronoun (\vhit'h»
howi'ver, is omitted in some cases, § 202, 4).

The word, which is thus rendered prominent, is followed either by
the ccmjunction na, (w by one or two of tlu^ emphatic particles ^tN
mmoui, nko, ara, with or without na, or merely by a short paosts

■

]

§ 247. SIMPLE SENTENCES. EMPHASIS. 147

markcMl in writing by a comma. It may even be cxpandod into a
proper sentence, by adding the words wo Ii o yi, or by premising
the word eye, // /.s, it was. In negative sentences en ye, it is nol^
is use<l, and the verb of the real predicate of the sentence foHows in
the affirmative form. E. g.

1. The subject rendered ])rominent.

Meara na merebeye, I myself shall do it.

Moara monfwe! see ye (to it)! Mat. 27, 24.

Enye me, rye won na ekae, not 7, (hnf) thet/ told ii.

On' de, wanyi won aye, he did not praise them (;is others did).

Eno mmom' na enye kora, tliat is etiea worse.

Eno nko ara na edoso, that (done is suf/lrieat.

Aniciii abieiV yi tumi nso, ete se ese ; na won' abrabii na esono no

kora, the power of the.se tiro nations nuts nearly equals hat their

manners n^ere entirely different.
l>one wg ho yi, eno na ese(», maii, it is sin thU spoils a nation.
Enye abopae nko ne adwi'ima, )tot only diyyinj stones is work.
Ase a mete yi, enye eno na ehia ; na adwumaye n<\ ehla,

that 1 live is not necessary, hut to do (vork is necessary.

*2. Th(^, vcrJf is made prominent by premising its infinitive form.

Oyaw nko ara na wote ho yaw, they live in continual (/uarreliny.
Wiiwi'i no, na own ara na wawn, haviny died^ he iras dead.
Nnipa nhhia pe Abrokyiri ako, na onyjl na wonnyA,

all men a'ish- to yo to Europe, they only do jhA attain to it.
Atade de, otn na wotii ho, na wontwiw, as for a coat (or any

garment), it is brushed^ hut not <ieaned (as shoes),

.'5. Complements made prominent.

n. Tlie nonunativv complement.

WohiVi se eye ghene no neii, they sau: that it is the kiny.
Enye ohene no nen, if i.s not the kiny,

h. The objective and lo-afive comjdement. Sec §201, 5.

Yiye ben na mmara yi yee? fvhat yood fvas e/fected by these laws?
Nsi'i ani wo ho yi, nea woj'ifa ho, woba a, wi'uVhfi ho bio,

(he way you have taken on the surface of the water, you do not

see ay ((in in returniny.
Priissifo mj)Oclno ho na Foinisifo kgfaa etgn fi, it was from the

roast of Prussia that th-e Phoenicians fetched amber.

■ 4. Adjuncts of }dacej time, nuDiner, cause, made prdmincnf.

Hi'ihiara a obedn na wasee ho nneema nhln.i,
whithersoever he cunw, he destroyed everythiny.
^ Won komam' de, woda so ye abosonsomfo,
t /// their hearts they trere still heathen.
I Kan no n;\ wnn bAnn yi ye biako,
I formerly these two men irere on yood terms.
I Ne bt're so na nknrof«) no linu amane pi,

148 SYNTAX. §248.

Eiiy(i ohoiiam aiii nyaniosoin kwa so mx oiiipa nam hcnyjl nkwHif
na Awiirade Ycsii nko so, iia W(niam iiya nk\v;1, il is not hy met'e
oviwdrd fvorship ihdi a vtan trill he sttved, hni utdtf l>y the Lord
Jr.SHs (are we saved).

Kdon \\i\ Olio (1(», woaniinanoV
irliji didst thon not (jive (anfithinn) to hiin'c'

Nnipa o^yo ii«a Ycsu Ixmj din win,
it teas for the Sidvaliou. of men that Jesns died.

Veil aiiai'iinu na own' sii, // lean in our stead that he died.

T). AUrihutive nouns made, prominent.

(Jkwasoa na ne giiaii tow nipen abicii',
a fool it is whose sheep hreaJcs loose In' ire.

Jleni. All inlerrofiative jtrononns, sul)sf;uitiv<^ and adjective, are
o1't«'n found in this eni]diatie position at tli(^ head of tlie sentence, and
take na alter them, whether tliey stanrl in the. place of the subject,
or of a complement, adjunct or attribute. (Before tlie, verb ne they do
not take na after them.) E.g.

Hena na alia? fcho has iHtnw?

(Heiia niV who is this? Kdcn iii? tvhiU is this?)

Ade ben or den (--deebeii) na wotoi'iV woton deiVV what do you sell?

Niiij)a ahe na ewo hoV ///;/r nam if persons are there?

Wuhu aheV (alu'' iij\ wiihf'i won?) Jane many do yon see?

Ilena guan na ayeraV (liena na ne guan ayeraV) n'hose sheej) isloslY

Khe na wuhnunoV (wuliuii no wo he?) where did yon see hhn?

5. Ellipsis.

Jiil<S« A part of a sentence may be omitted^ wlien it can easily be
sup|)lied from the context, wln'ther it be mentioned before, or not,
an<l in |)roverbs or sententious and impassioned expressi(nis.

1. The snhjecl being omitt(»d, seeglGO.

2. The ohjei't being omitted, sec g 21)2.

3. The verb may be omittxMl in some cases, as —
(/. the verb ye, in descriptions before nominntive complements,

especially adjectives; e.g.

Okura ]»oma bi a eho apowapow, he had a knobbed stick.
Ilunnifo ye nni])a bi a won asem ahanrsem, won ani fVkyi^wakyew,

won koko atetrete, the linns trere ])eople of savaye nninncrSy irilh

sf/nint eyes, broad chests.
'reaseeiiam a nv. nan alnen' abieiV mil na wot\\c won yerenom n^ woo

mma, on t no-wheel carriayes they dren' their nives and children. I

Won ade mmobo ! Wi. their thinys [cause or move to] jn'ty, i.e. ^/fW/" .

people! I

b. any verb, with complements; e. g.

Asem nko, nyansa nko, waiter aUme, wisdom abate, \, v. the nmlter
(in (jfuestion) is one ihitty, attd tvisdont (or the riyhl jndtjvmeni of
it) is another tkiny. Prov.

§249.250. (simple, SENTENCES.) COMPOUND SENTENCES. 149

4. A ichotc scntenjc witli the exception of the last word is some-
times omitted; e. g.

Woko, iia krana! thcfj are gone and [since evevy ihinff is] silent^ i.e.
uothififf has been heard since,

Na niiaawotwe no dui, yefWe a, — kora! the ei()ldh dat/ came, ichen
ire looked out, [we saw nohody] at all! i. e. nuhod// came

Ohcmpon no repe oto ato oko no ano, nso okwa, the ewperor desi-
red to fall in the haltle, but [he sought it] in vain.
On dabi, no, see § 146, 3.

5. Entire sentences too are left out ; e. g.

Wo de, gye se woto! as for thee, [I shall not be satisfied] evepl

thou die!
K'ha sii da nso a, [amma] gye se Frans dan' n\'lmdn no mii hi de

ma Napoleon, as often as this came to pass, [it did not ronie to

pas.s] eccept Francis ceded some part of his countries to Napoleon.
Aniwn ne wi'i — , nji efanim wi'i, shame and death, [if 1 had to

rJioose between them,] then. \ I should sai/] death is less bad, Cf.§ 199,5.
^{' yeanifa ahodo ntia! Mat. 10^7.

r». Subordinate sentences are in some cases shortened and contrac-
ted with their principal one by the omission of their verb (with its
tomplement) and of other parts or particles. Of. § 2G9.

Da se. 'ne Yaw yebesim', this Thursday week we shall start.
Da se 'ne Yaw, lit. day like to-day Thursfday), may be said to be
sljortencMl from da a ete se 'ne Yawda yi |t(;], or the like,
(■f. Da se 'ne nti na woaye bowerew. (Prov.)

SECTION 11. COMPOUND SENTENCES.

CHAPTER I.
Co-ordinate Sentences.

24m. A '(ntfj/ouiid senleii''e (§ 155, 'Jr^) may contain two or more
y^iH' ifiid seidewes co-onlinate with each other, tlnr conn(^\ion of which
Neither 1. I'opulidire, ov 2. adrersatine, m- l^. ''((usafire (illative), and
tt iii(licat(*(l by conjunctions and conjunctive f?<l verbs or phrases, or
W8 only in the sense.

1. Copulative Co-ordination,

350* In copulative rombinations, a second assertion is added to
4© first, so as to give greater extent of meaning to the whole.

150 SYNTAX- § 250.

'IMic connected seiiUnucs arc litliiT of ct/ital value or importance,
siinultaiicoiis or without regard to tiuie'|>^, or eoutaiu a (fradaiiOit^Jy
or exj)ress a macesHion iu space or tinie';^, or state a pariiiion^i),
or the added seuteuce contaius an ccplaiuiUon of the preceding one,
or of one of its parts ^;).

(fc. Akoko fwe aberewA, na aberewa fwe akoko,

Ihc hen cares for the (old) ivowan and the woman eares for fitc hen.
I'ekrema uh ekum nipa, na tekrenia na v^yii nip«i,

(he lonffue kills {a wan) and the ionijne saves (wen).
Asikre ye fivnifreni, adiiru ye nwene, na anka' ye nyinyanyinyjl,

sujiar is sweet, medi'-ine is hitter, and a lime is soar.
Mfrania kese hoe, na epo boo asorokye,

a (jreat wind hiew, and the sea cast hilUtws.
Oji^yaw' nie, na niaiihfino bio, lie left nte and I saa' hint no wore.
A brain traa Kanaan, na Lot kotraa Sodoui,

Ahram dwelled in Canaan and Lot went (uid dwelled at Sodonr
Onyankopon anyan Yesu, ujinso onani ne tunii so ln'iiyai'i yen hi,

(iod has raised Jesus, and will also raise us hij his poa'er.
h. Nsuni brode nko, sum kwadu bi,

do not only plant plantains, hat plant hananas too.
Wanliye bo nko, na waye nso,

he did not on It/ give a promise, hat kept it also.
Nno wo yonkononi nko, na do wo atauifo nso,

love not onlji thy friends, hat lore also thy enemies.

('. Xnwontofo di kan, asankubofo di akyiri, the sin jers go he fore, the
players on instraments follow after. Ps. 6*(S', ^;}.
Kan no wotwe manso ; afei woaye biako,
formerly they were at rarianoe, no/v they agree.

d. Mnioa bebre te asase so, ebinoni nso te usunT,

many animals lire on land, soine also lire in the water.
Ebinoni reboni' se', na afoforo rebom' se,
some cried <nie thing and some a)iother.

e. AduaiV no ye moinono, woiinoae,

this food is rair, it has not heen boiled.
Aseni te se anomn: enkye tii, a a'ord is like a hird: it flies. away

soon (comes oat of sight or mentor y).
Ajj^ya biako na ye wo, one Nyankopon.

/re hure one Father, that is (jod.
Mnioa bi puw wesaw, ebi iie : yonia, iiautwi, ognan, some hvust-S

rhca- the end, as^ the i-amcl, the rotr. thi' she>'p, and others,

2. AVlien a swreasion of events falls in the fnlnrc. lime, we freijueutly

iind only the first pre^iicate in the fainre. or also iu the present or

progressive, and the sacceeding prediuifcs iu ihe conse-tttive form,

whereby they appear rather as subordinate than as co-ordinate sen-

touees. (U'. 2i)i^, 5 llcm. 21\), 2. 2S(), 1 h.

Woreko Nkrau 'ue, nti okyOua woasau ako I)eiia,
they are going to Akra to-day, and trill return to Ehnina lo-morrow.

§ 251. CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 151

r ■ ~'

Ode iiiiuantei'i no begyinji nc, iiitVi, lui ode? iiipapo no aj^yiiia bciikuni.

Mat. 25. .VoV
Oin'jia bii no bebii anu'inc pi, na nipanyiniro ne asolo-nipanyin no
kyrrewlu no apa no na wuakuni no, na da a eto so nnansfi no wa-
; ny an' Lak. .9, 22. 4-J. 18, 31-^^3. cf. 31at. 16, 21. 17, 22. 23. 20, 18. 19.

t Mark, 8, 31. 9, 31. 10, 33. 34,

2. Advcrsaivic Co-ordination.

t29>],' In adrcrsatinc condnnaiions a second assertion is jnit in ojfpo-

ailion to tbc lirst, eitlnn* ni^gativing it«^, or leaving one of tbe two

assertions to be accepted and tbe otb«'r to be negative I ^), ur granting

tbe first, bnt presenting a limitations^ or a contrasts^) to it.

i a, Wanko Ak} em, na osaii baj'i Nkran,

* he did not t/o to Akem, hut returned to Ahra.

Nye nya, na tii nnnirika ntennitem, Ite not slou\ hat ran fast.
jVlempe wo bone, na meye wo yiy(',

I do not ivish to hurt tjou, hut I shall do fjou {food.
Wansiw' no kwan, na mmom' obuaa n(»,
he did not hinder him, hut even helped him.

h. Ko ne nkyeii, anase kyerew no nboma,

(JO to him, or write him a letter,
V\\i\ kurn no yiye, anye sa a, ebetn,

attend well to this wound, else it will ulcerate.
Wada, anase wafi adi, he deeps or has (fone out.

r. Vjyv te, na enye aniber(% it is fine, hut ejocites no desire.
Wrinyin, na onnya mfuw' dwen e,

he i.s old, hut still has no (fretf hairs yet.
M<Mle> mo de, na menne mo iibhi.i, 7 mean you, hut not all of you.
Mafiv no de, na mand're mo nbhui,

/ have railed him, hut not all of you.
d. Woatre nni}»a bebre, na kakr.i bi na woapaw won. Mat. 20, 10.
Abofra bo nwaw, na ommo akyekyere,

a rhild hreaks a snail, hut not a tortoise.
Aso SI abic^n', na ente nsem abien', (mans) ears are two, hut they

don't hear two words (tbe same word in two dill'erent ways).
'Pae mil se' ye Fere, nso eye abodwo, ^ Speak it out Jrecly (tell it

plainly)"' causes .shame, hut hriny.s ease of mind.

Hem. 1. 'I'bere are sentences wliicb may as well be reckoned to
§2.'>0, as to § 251. E. g.

I label yvy ogiiantVvefo, na Kain (nso) yee oknafo, Ahel was a kee-
per of sheep, and (or hut) Cain was a tiller of the tjround.

Hem. 2, In sentences like tbe following, tbe second contains a cause.
Aiik.i meba(» akye {or main ba dedaw), na osi'i no nti amniA man-
ny.i litem, 7 shoidd he here (or should have arrived) lony siu'C,
hut on a -iOunt of the rain. 7 (cas delayed.
An ka introduces an event not real, but only imaginary; cf. § 141,8.
276, i"). 'Hie second sentence is adversative to tbe first, giving the rea-
son for the uou-reality of the event mentioned therein. Cf. § 252.

152 SYNTAX. § 252. 253.

3. Camaiicc and Illative Co-onUiialloti.

!39>!3* 111 i:aaHaUoi^ comhinallons, one sentence gives the lotjical
reason or cause, and the other ilm inference (lotjical conclusion) or
result (e/f'ect or consequence). When tlie second sentence expresses
the reason or causes), it has tlic conj. iia, and when it expresses the
inference or result ^), it has the words na enti, eyi iiti, eno nti,
enc se, before it E.g.

a. Nko turom', na fam' afow,

do not (JO into the (jar den, for the ground is wet.
Asase no ye, na eba aduaiV pi,

this land is (jood, for it produces much food.
Nhyira ne mmoborohunnfo ; iu\ won na wobeliu won niniobg,

Messed are the merciful: for Ihet/ shall obtain wercff.
Me dom no do wo so ; na me tuini wie i)e ye wo nierew nin,

tny gra-e is sufficient for thee: for mtf strcnfffh is tnade jtvrfc I

in weakness. 2 Cor. 12, 9.
Monu'iuida molio ; Onyaine ininA wonsi no atwetwe, ^

he not deceived; God is not mocked. Gal. 0,7.
Hem, 1. The cause is more frequently expressed, in the same suc-
cession, by efise, introducing a subordinate sentence. §275,2.

h. Ahene ne mpanyimfo tumi fi Nyankojx')!! ; enti etwa se niobere inn

bo ase bye won ase. Horn. 1.3, ;>>.
Oiiipa nti ml woyee homcubl; na enti onipa ba no ye liomeda ust»

wura, tJie sabbath was made for man; therefore the Son of man

is Lord also of the sabbath. 31a rk. 2, 28.
Muirninr don ko a mo wuni beba; enti monwen! tjou do not know

u:hat hour your master will rome: therefore watch!
Rem. 2. Tlic cause is also expressed (in the same succession) by a
subordinate sentence having nti for its last word. K. g.

(Se or (Jsiane se or efise) munniui don ko a obeba nti, monwen!

be'-ause (or a.s) you do not know what hour he will come, wakh!

See §275,1.

4. Co)t traction and Abbreviation of Co-ordinate Sentences.

!2r>9$. 1. Whi'ii two coordinate siaiteiices have either the same
subject, or tlie same jfredi'ute, or the same romplement, or the saiin'
adjunrt^ tbe parts common to botli sentences are not expressed twice,
and the two sentences are conlra'tcd into one, and regardi^d as a
simfile sentence with a compound subject or predicate or romplcmvni
or adjunct, consisting of cO-ordinate members. Kxainpl(\s see § 245, l-r>.

When such co-ordinate members consist of nouns or ])ronouus, tlicy
are connected by the conjunction ne or an ase; wlieii coiiHisting t>r,
or introduccMl by verbs, no conjunction is used.

2. Tbis applies to copulative senlen'.cs; to adversative scntrn'ea^
only when two subjects or complemenfs eonnect(Ml by an ase. have a (
common verb. E. g.

§ 253^- CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 153

Kwasi tuiastj Kofi iniiuMa, Kwasi or Ku/l sJuUl come.

Wjito oj^Uiuitcii aiui.sr abori'kyi? has lie bouffld a s/tet'p or a jfoat?

Hem. In a socoiul eopidaiive .sentence., in wbicli the prunonn, and
in an adiJcrHdih'e sentence, in wliicli also tlic verb can be oniitted in
Knjijlisb, both ninst be expressed in Tsbi; e.g.

Kwasi bae, no oko bio, Ktva.si name, hut went aivan LUjaw.

Meni[)e ne niia, na inepe Kot'i,
7 (lo))^t tvant his brother, hnt (I nutnt) Kofi himself.

Many a ode, na mannya abiirow', 1 hane (jot yam^ hat no corn.

3. An adverb'alive sentence may be ahhreviated, when only a singb*

part in it, either the suhject, or an object, or an attrihate, is opposi^l

to the corresponding part of the preceding sentence. The verb and

ni her parts common to both sentences, are then not repeated; but tliat

|>art of the second sentence, which is put in contrast to a part of the

iirst, is mentioned alone (or with such words as necessarily belong to

i(j, introduced by eye or enye. E. g.

Knye me na mekae, na eye wo, not I .said it, hut thou (.saiiLst il).
Knye ne bone nti na owiii, na eye yen bone ntia,

not on acrount of his own sins he died, but for our sins.
Yen na woasomayen, na tniyi^ mo, we have been sent, not ifou.
( )l»arima hi wu a, ne wofasewa na odi n'ade, v\\y() ne mma, U'hen

a man dies, his nephetv inherits his f/oods, not his rhildren.
ok wan ware a, wodc won nan na etwa, na enye abonua (o/*, na

wonne ab.), //' a ivay is tony, it is shortened by the feet, not by

an a c.

1. A co-ordinate sentence expressing a cause cannot be abbreviated ;
but lh(i cause can l)e expressed by a subordinate sentence, which may
Ik- abbreviated into a mere adjunct. See § 275. 240, 1 A.

ti»>J5" In § 245, 2r/. we spoke of simple sentences in which two
(or ihree) verbs are co-ordinate in form like those in the contracted
sentences of ^ 245, 2b., yet only one of those verbs is the priniipal
v<M-b, and the other, or also the third, an aujciliary, is subordinate
in meaniny, forming or introducing some complement or adjunct to
the principal verb. In a similar way, subordinate thouyhfs, for the
expression of which, in English, subordinate sentences or participU's
are used, arc! oi'ten found expressed in the conciser fonn of co-ordi-
uafiun, either 1. in a contra ted sentence, wlien the subject is expres.sed
only once; or 2. in a ro^fijiound sentence w'ith the co-ordinative con
junction na, e.specially when there are ditTiu-ent subjects. This way
of expression is found in many proverbs, .siddom with aflirmative, but
very fr<Mjnrntly with n<*gative j>redicates. Though the fornf <d' tlie.
two predicates be thi* same, tlieir mutual relation, or tlie hn/ral form
ofthi' lh(fuyhfs <'xj)ressed by them, is different, as the following examples
will show.

1 54 SYNTAX. § 253.

A. ScntcMiecs with aflinnativi^ piTclicatcjs, 1. contracted, 2. couipouiid

1. Elii.'i bjitani liia ']»*i»J7 wimn the trader is in fVUHt (of food &e.),
his carrier (liircd person wlio accompanies him carrying hiH goods)
/;>• it too, 'I hi', lirst predicate is e((ual to an adnerhiaf sentence of Uine
(^ 2()2, 1), or oi' manner (comparison, § 2G'J), or oi' cause, (eitbor real
cause or condition, § 275. 270, 1).

Diia hat a 'ho ye otwa-na, a piex of wood ffjimf close to a stone, is
diffu'ult to l>e cut. ^I'he 1st [)red. - an adf), sent, of time or condition
ij 27(1. 270=') : dua hata ho a, eye ot\Va-na; or — an adjedine sent,
(§258,2): dua a ehata bo ye ot\Va-nn.

2. Onipa nam na osiane amoa, whilst a man walks, he walks hi/ the
side of a pit, i.e. is always near the (/rave. 'I'he 1st prcd. :=: au
adr, sent, of time; § 202. 2():J.

Momono tew na guannuan t(;w, fresh (leaves) fall off and drf/ (ones)
fall off, i. e. frcsft- leaves fall off as well as dry leaves. One of th«
two predicates is equal to an adv. sent, of manner (comparison); § 208.

H. Sentences with negative ])redicates, 1. contracted, 2. compound.

1. Xsateawa nye j)ono-na n'ye tene-na (Ak., =— 2. nsatea nye poiio-na
nso enye tee-na, Akp.), a finffer is not difficult to hend (and) not dif-
firnlt to stretrh out, i. e. a flnr/cr may he as easily stretched as bent.
One (d' the two predd. - - an adv. sent, of manner {romparison)\ § 208.

( )hi ny(» yiye nnya bone, (lit.) one does not fjood does not receive evil;
the 1st [)red. r:i-- an adj. sent. (§258,5): old a oye yiye nuya hone,
one doiirf yood does not receive evil: or - - an adv. sent, of time or
I'ondition (§270:i); obi yij yiye a, onnyfi hone, wlien or if one does
flood, he is not requited with evil; or the 2d pred. =^ an adv, sent,
of cause {purpose, § 271), la.): ol)i nye yiye se obenya bone, nof/od^
does yood that fte may obtain evil.

2. Akoa nni awu na wonkum owura, if a slave commits a murder^ tlw
master is not killed (for it). The 1st ])red. -^ an adv. sent. lA' condition.

Obi nto akokonini na (or, nima) ommon obi akura, nohody huys (l
t'ork that tie nuiy crow at another mans villaye. The 2d pred. ^= an
adv. sent, of purpose; § 271), 1 />. (§271, 1 r.)

V>. For the sake of comparison we add th(^ following proverbs as fur-
ther examj)les with negative ])redicates.

I. Obi nd*a aberekyi nto gnanteii ho, nohody compares a (foat with
a sheep. 'I'he 1st pred. — : a direct ohje'-t'., §205,5. Item.

Obi mnie nima obi, nohody is satisfied for another. 'Vhv. 2d pred. =
an indirert ohiect, § 200, o., or rather a terminative adjunct, ^^^-iilk

Obi nhn nipa dakoro ns(; no se: woal'on, nohody seeiny (or, hdvinfl
seen) a man one day (for the iirst time), says to him (on the. same
day): you have he-ome lean. The 1st pred. --- an adjunct of tittw
(with a rcdative sent.) or an adv. sent, of lime] § 22(>, 1. 202, 1.

( )bi nhintaw mmo waw, nohody roftyhs secretly, 'i he 1st pred. =^ hii
(nliun.'t of manner; § 2'X\, :\. 2:J1, :\.

0\)\ nil'a ne nan abien nsusnw asu, nohody measures (the depth of)
a neater wiili both leys. 'I'he 1st pred. : an adjunct of manner
(means) ; § 237a.

t54. COMPOUND SENTENCES. l55
t

\i iisiisuw sMiio yiiin' 11111111 aluiban ', nohodfj plucks a leuf incas'tirhiff
» dtphauls hcllff, i. c. vcjlc-Ahiif ivkat will sails fy an elcphanl. I'lu'
»t prcd. ^= ad] and of ma unci' {accompany in'j circanislancc)\ § 2.*nc.

\ nkwaii kokurubcti iiiino pow. IJiia biara nsow iiiiya ntVvireh da.
237';. The 1st or the 2d pred. = an adjunct of manner (exclusion).

n miiuia ii'auo uiii fo, nobody slmts his mouth so that (in consoqueiiec*
F it) he would appear as (luilty.

\\ iniidi imu neho, nobody eats so that he repents (of it). I'he 2(1
red. = an adv. sent, of manner (consef/uencS); §27.'5, l(t.

n iihu U/i kwaberan uhuruNV nsi, nohody iunij)S (with jity^ or erAdts)
n seeiny another man's strony slaiH\ 'I'lie. Int i)red. -- an adinn't
r adh\ sent, of cause {motive); §2i:()/>. 255, Ore. 275,1.2.

ji iitu innicre nsie siw so, § 27()'^ 2. with a second example. Tin
st prcd. ^^ an adv. sent, of roudition.

bi nyi ininiisii infa innmsn, nobody removes a:oe in order to yet woe.
The 2d pred. -- an adv. sent, of cause {purjn)se)\ § 271>, \((.

bi iitutii aiioma nkokyere opaiiyiii, § 25S, 5.

riie 2d pred. -= an adjective sentence. Cf*. also § 25S, 3. 4.

Ohi iiipra na obi iisesaw, § 2701 with a second example,
riio 1st pred. -- an adv. sent, of time or condition.

An ntxVa poma na eiisen no (tenten), nobody cuts a stik lonyer than
kimseff '11 1 e 2d pred. — an adjective sentence.

^bi iito akoa na ons(!n ne wiira, nobody buys a slave that he sur/nis
ma his master, i.e. that he miyht rule over him ( an explanafnui
U) \\\v preceding prcjverb).

)bi I'liiye kontroini'i na onni son (oson aba, nsron), nobody forces a
':himp{in::e io eat sony (a certain fruit, which he will nev<'r eat). The
2<l jn-cd. - an adverbial setdeni-r of fuiuse (jKtrjfosc), s^ 27'J, 1 b. In
8t('}ul of the c'onj. na, the \ erb ni m a might Ix' used, especially in
tlu- Akem <lialcct" (1". ^5 271, 1'.

CHAPTER II.
Subordinate Sentences.

«»ll. Subordnmlc srntvn'VS form parts of the principal sentence
'rtli which they are compounded into i)\w tonfj/lc r senlenrf (^^ 155,2),
•>. tliey stand in the place of a sJibject, or complement, av adjunct,
'attribute. Thei-e are three kinds of sul»ordinate sentences: 1. the
^^'Snilenre. 2. tb<' ((d'clivr .sentence. ;>. the adverbial senten e.

Hvttt. Subor«linate sentences are, besith'h the connective partich-s
*^ willi IJiem, di.stiuiruished from principal sentences by their lnin\
Nf tunes beiiij;* fr(M|Uentiy (•\chan<;e<l with hij;h tones at the b<'};in
'i and low or iiigh tones, witli middle tones at the end.

1 56 SYNTAX. § 255.

1. Noun Sentences.

^•^•i. A noun-sentence is ('({uivalent to an abstract noun, and stands

for a subject, or complement, or attribute.

1 . A nounsentence standing in the, [)lace of a suhjerl, either prece-
des the predicate of the principal sentence, as the subject usually HoqhoJ,
or the subject is indicated by the pronouu e-, prefixed to tlie verb of
the principal sentence, and its statement in a sentence follows behind,
being introduced by the conjunction se, from se, to sayb)^ or by
se or senea, from se, to be aliUe^) (§141.) In the latter case, the
noun-sentence may also precede the predicate <9.

a. Pae mii se ye fere, cut {it) open say i. e. open confession causes shame.
Ko wo kurom' nye oyaw, (jo into your (own} country., is no insult.
Som woho n'ye akoa, serve thyself is not slavery,
h. Eye se wojiba, it is well that you are come,

Ktwa se woko, it is ne'-cssary that you yo i. e. you must f]0.
Eyre no fe se obeye adwunui no, it pleased him that he should do

that work, i. e. he liked to do that, he did that work (fit idly.
Ense ahene se wobenom nsa, it is not for Jcinys to drink wine.
Eye Onyame mma nl se obi hiVwia ne yonko ade,
// is a divine law that none shall steal his neiyhhours thififfs,
'■' Eyi'i: "<> «{^ oso dae, it appeared to him as if he was dreandny.
Esono se ete wo Germanefo astise so hobere ne 'neyi,
the condition of the irermans' country at that time was different
from what it is now.
Esono senea wofwefvvee no fae kora,

the manner in which, they souyht it, was altoyether di/fercnt.
d. 8e one won dii no ye hu, how he dealt with, them., was friyhtful.
Senea oyee no fae no ye nwonwa, how he per formed it, is wonderful.

2. A noun-sentence standing in the place of a nominative vamplc-

tnent is likewise introduced by se. E.g.

N'asem mii nokware ne> se (mni slkji,
the truth in his story is, that he has no money.

.*5. A noun-sentewe stands in the jdace of an ohjed
a. without conjunction, after the verb se, to say, when a persoiiV
words (or thoughts) are (|Uote 1 in a dirc^ct ov indirect way;

h. introduced by se or senea, after several transitive verbs, ex-
|»rcssing some perception or its manifestation, or a desire to do some-
thing or that it be done. In the latter case, the succeeding verb
stands in the imperative form.

rr Oniiiafo se: okyena meye, the slufiyard says, to-morrow J will do it.

Akura' ho ose orenom nsu, na wannya. In,
in that rillnye he thouffht to drink water ; but he yot none.
If. Mate se wal)a, 7 have heard that he is I'onw.

iM untie senea oyee no fae, //,s/(7/ how he performed it.

Ohm se ontumi nye ade no, he saw that he could not do iL

§ 255. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 157

Muiiim senea otc' 'lie ana? do you know how he is to-day?
Misusuw' so 0(1 a so yaro, / thhik he is still sirk.
Koka kyere no so, ineha, r/o (and) tell him that 1 shall come!
Kyore snnea onye no mfa! show hoir he shall do it!
(Jsnroc so o^H;ko Iio, he was afraid to (fo there.
Kol)isa no so obeba and? ask him whether he will come,
Osc (okae so, obuaa nie se) oninid (onimnia, oremma),
he says (he said, he answered me) he will (a^ould) not come,
Osori'ii me se nieninio no bosea, he hegfjedme to lend him some money.
Mesere wo se bera, 1 he(j you to come.

Hem. As a noun-sentence standing in the place of an object, we
ninst also (graniniatically) consider wbat foHows aft(U' tbe ver!) ma
in tbe meaning to let, to cause, to permit, to' have (somethiitjf done),
in tbe eom|)oniul im])erative as well as in any otber form. (Jf. g '.)!, 10.
(§1)5.) §107,25.; but see also § 273, !('. E.g.

Uliia na ema odebye ye akoa,
purerty rauscs a freeman to hecome a slave.

4. A nonn-sentenre stands in tbe place of a complement of place

after tlie veil) fi; but we consider efi se and efise as compound

conjunctions of time and cause. See § 205. 275.

Efi se mebaa ba yi, nieyare, since I rame here, 1 am sick.
O'yaw no, efise waguau, he scolds him, hecause he has fled.

5. A noun-sentence [or adverhial sent, of comparison, § 2()8f/.2r>0J,

introduced by se or senea, stands in tbe place of a comjilenwnt of

manner after tbe verb te and its corresponding verb ye (§200,1).

EU\ se (or senea) wokae no, it is as thou saidsl.
El)ey<» se mokae no, it will he as you said.
Ete se wawia, it is as if he had stolen (it).
Et(» se osuro, // is as if lie was afraid.

An ((hl)reviation of sucb noun-sentences, and contraction witb tbe

principal sentence, takes place, wben tbe predicate of tbe noun-sen-

t(;nce would be tbe same as tbat of the principal sentence, and is,

therefore, left out. E. g.

Ote se ue nua [te], he is as his brother [is .
Yete se wou [ =: se wgte], we are (ts they [are].
Onyame asem te se asae, the nu)rd of God is like a hf(mmer.
Jer.2:i,r2!). VA'. §209, 1.

(). A noun'SenleU'Ce stands in tbe pbice of an attribute in the jws-
scssivc rase

a. before tbe postposition nti, cf. § 239, 4. 21(^,\ Hern 2.
h. introduced hy se, after some verbal jdirases.

<i. Obfifo suro dom nti otwa abrgdo,

tlie coward deserts^ heca'W^e he is afraid of the enemy.
( hiyanknpoii mpe aseinmone nti na gkye din mmiako-nimiako,
because God does not like misdeeds, he gave a name to everybody.

158 SYNTAX. §266

ITiiw m'ani so inn mo iiti iia atwr abicii nam, lit. /()/* (he sake of

'hfotr npoit mil rt/c for ntr' hro (mlr.lojx's irafk (in <'Otf/jKnip)^ i. c

llt<i( one wdff hiair iipo)* the olhcr's nje cU'. ('!'. 271), 'J. lirm.^..!.
A. Wobuu no fo so wnnkum no ( - wohuii no knm io),

they r.oiuiewHcd him lo he Icilled.
Mituu no fo sc onko so (^= mitiiii no no nkgso ho fo),

1 admonished him lo (jo on.
Oliyoo mo aso sy obeboa nio (^^r pliyoe mo ne* boa aso),

he promised me lo help me. ('f. §214,2.
( )siw' mo kwj'in so monnyo nradwi'ima, or: osi'vv mo in\ifl\vnma ho

kwan, he prohihiled H/e from doin;i mif n'urk.
Ilona n;i oj^yoo mo asabawnu'i so munnlio nokwaro,

trho did hinder fjoir, thai you should not ohetj the trnthY

Ahhreviaiion and Contraction of Noun -sentences.

!250* In }ionn-sentenr(.'s introdncod ))y so, with tho followin*^ vorh

in tho fntnro tonso, tho ooninnction may bo omittod, and thv. vorb is

tlion suhordinated to tho procodin*!; vorb in tho ronse-'utfre form, or

ro-ordinated in tho )aujatire form. K. ^.

Obonya ho kwan ayo sonoa ope, lie tvill have liberty {i^r permission)

lo do as he likes.
Ofwofwo biribi ayo, he seeks sometJtiu(i to do.

Onnya ho kwan n'yo sonoa opo, Ite is }iol permitted to do as he likcii.
Hem. Tho vorbs po, to desire, hr a'illiwi, null, wish, intend, fwo-
I'wo, to seek, and tnmi (Ak. timi), to he ahle, ran, aro construed
a. with a nonn-sentence introdncod by so (§ 255, H/a);
It. with anothor finite rerl) in tho lOnse/'ntire form; the verb pc

tlion takos tlio compU^nont of tho second vorb for itsolf;
/•. tho vorb tnmi in the neyatire is foHowod by tlio second vcrh
likewise in the netjative.
a. Mope so mesoa adesoa, I wish to rarry a load (or loads).
L^pr ^C' ogoi'H mmom' sen so obeyc adwiima,
lie likes rather to jday limn to work.
Onyamo pe so yekyi (or yonkyi) bono,

(iod desires thai we [mifilit] althor sin..
Metnmi so mesoa adesoa, / shall he ahi.e to ''arry a load.
^lobetnmi so monom knriiwa no anase wo;b' asnbo no bomoasn?
are yon able to drink of that imp or to he h(iptized with llnil
hapti'sm'^ MaL2(),:22.
ft. Mope a(U''soa bi masoa, / seek a load to lan-y.
(Jiwofwe adwnma bi aye, he seeks sonai work to do.
Me.mpe obi ii matwa, 1 do not desire, to en! '^ff any man^s hemi
Moromp*''. ho inatra (b\, / shall ne.rer like to dwell there.
Wobetiimi aye (h'.n V what are yon ahir to do':'
Metniui masoa adesoa yi, / sladi hr ((hie to carry this load.
r. Mintnmi mensoa iiamanka', / crninol rtwry hamniOrk.
Wantnmi ansoa a(b'soa no, }te fonhl not rtwry th(tl load.

('onstriufions (»i' jio and tnmi with simj)]o complements, see § 2Ui)
Hem. Cf. § 107, 12.2:5.

§257.258. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 159

2. Adjeelive Sentences,

!^9S7* An (idjeclive scnfen'e takes the place of an attributive ad-
jective and ni;iy be attached to any noun or pronoun (or otlier words
equivalent to a noun), be it the subjc^ct, or a complement, adjunct or
attribute. It is connected with the noun to which it belongs, and which
is caHed its (tnlei'edcnf, by the relative particle *a' (which has always
the low tone, but no comma after it, as the conjunctive particle *a'
S 2G2. 27G). E. g,

Ade a enye (^= ade bone) na wgye no yiye, (f thimf fchph is not

(food (d had thiif/f) is made (food.
Duii a eye deu (dua dennen) nkye afViw so, a hard tree does not

stand loti'j on. a plantation (it will soon be cut).
O'di aduaiV a eye de (aduaiV d^jde), he eats palatahle food.
Nuipa bani'i a woko no se pe,

the tivo men, who are Wfdkinfj there, are like earh other.
Won a wodii no so nhimi pee n'asem, (Ul his super iors liked him.
()ni|)a fi meboo ne din mekyeree wo no aba,

the man a'hom I mentioned to ijou, has come.
Asem a wokae no n'te sa, the matter U'hi'h fjou related is not so.
Kyere me nea otae, tell me whi<h way he took.
iMinnim iako a okoe, 1 dont knoa^ in a^hph direction he n^ent off.

Cr. § 2G0, 1 . 2G5, i Hem. h.
More examj)les see in § G4. an 1 adj. sentences after nea in § Gf).

lUm. t. Such adjfctive sentences are very frequent in 'l\shi, on
account of the scarcity of adjectives an<l the entire want of jiarticiples.
Kven nouns are sup])lied in tliis way; e. g. nea wope (nye), that n'hirh
thuu ivilt i. e. ///.// null (f)e done).

licm. 2. On two or more adjective sentences in succession, seo § 282, 1.

Ahhreviation of Adjeiiim Sentenres.

2oS« 1. The iirst step towards the abbreviation of an adj<'ctive
Konteure joined to a complement, is the omission of the relative partirlc

Wonlifi asem ko wokrl, the// do not find a trord to sat/, or the single
(peuliar) irord (whirh) the// mif/ht say.

2. 'I'he sahjei't of th(» adjective sentence is omitted^ beside the ndat.

particle, when it is the same as that of the ])rinci])al sentence; the

hvo verbs then appear as co-ordinate. E. g.

Onni babi te ^~. onni bfibi a ote or obetra, he has not where to dwell.

Xea wonyA dii sua - nea wonyac^ a wodii or wobedi sua,
whid the// (jot to eat auis not mwh.

Oliene no nyiux opanyim-]»;l hi trAji ne ho, the kinfj had an er>(Hrnt
minister sittinij at his side, i.e. nith him. [In this case trAa may
l>«' taken in a causativ(» sense, or the case is the same as under A.\

Dua bata bo ye otwa nn, § 2r»:{' A 1. (In this exani]»le not the second,
but the first of the two predicates may be explaincil by an adj. sent.|

1 60 SYNTAX. § 259. 260.

^5. When tlio. firsf vrrh is iivijdlivv^ tin* ro-onlhialv vorb is usually

mado. nv(f alive too. E. <^.

Oinii babi iito or ntra - r onni babi to, sec- above, under 2.
Onuya biribi uni — biribi a odi or obedi, Jui (JcIh nolliimj 1o cut.
Woaiibfi fo-pa bi Antii no, they fonnd uo (juod ndvix to (live him.
Wounya obi nto l)io --- wonnya obi j\ wobot() bio, they do not (jet
(Oii/fhiHfi to t)uy nyain, they yet nollnny to Iniy any more.

4. 'V\w. abbreviation may also take jrlaee, wlien tbe snh'}e':l of the

(uljet'-tive sentence is tbe ohjert of tbe prin-ipal sentence.

VVonnya obi nto bio =^ wonnya obi a obetg bio, they do not yet any
one to hay ayain, they yet no buyer any more.

;'). Other exanij)l(^s of ro-ordi nation of a neyative predicate, where

we nii^lit expect an adjective sentence with an affirmative ])redieat(*,

are the fcdlowin*; proverbs :

Obi ntutu anonici iVkokyere opanyin - obi nt. anomA k ode kokyero
op., a person does not pbi'h a hird [doe.s not yo to nhotv i.e.)
H'hi'lf, he is yoiny to s/uxr to an old man (to in(|uire for its name).

Obi nye yiyo nnya bone, see in§253''^Bl.

llrju. Instead of an adjective sent, after a negative verb and no-
minative comj>l(Mnent imjjlying a comparison, a sentence with tin? coii-
jiincfion na and the verb in tiie consecutive is used. (yf. § 250, 2. 279,2.
Aiisem nye ntania na woasi ahata <iua so,
a family matter is not a t'lofli UuU it miyhl he ( --- which might he)
(rashed and spread onl in a puhli<: pld'X (to dry).
Nkramfoa nye nam bi na apofofo abo din aforo po,
life nicranifana are no such fishes thai ft she r men aHmId Umueh tulo
sea on arconnt of them.

(). The relai. partiiie and tlie sultjeii of an adje/'t. sent. ar<». also

ODiUled before beye (se), b()boro, introducing a numb(»r, weight or

measure approximately estimated. Of. § lOO, 4. 175, 2. 181), 2. 229, 2.

3. Adrerhial Sentences.

!^*Stl« An adverhi(d, sentence (pialifies the predicate of the principal
one like an adjunct of j)lace, tinu', manner or cause.

W'c iniiiht ('(Misidcr those, (t(tjn)ir(s, wliicli arc iiitr(»(hi< cd l)y auxiliarv verbs, as
(Hlcryltidl si^nlcncrs, liavin^" tlic fiamc suhjrct in coinnioii witli tin* ])riii('i])al verb:
l.nt, as ^\v■ have treated of tlicm ahvady in ^ '2'2:\. 2i'4 227. 22*». "2^-2^. 237.
2*>1) 21.'i., we arc only to in(>ntion such cases as liavc not yet bct^n s] token ot^
cspi'i iaily cases in wlii( h the suhjrcl of the auxiliary is (ti/jcrtnt from that of the
princiiial verb, togetln^r with adverbial sentences of other descriptions.

a. Adverbial Senlen'^es of IHare.

miOm 1. Adverbial senlen^'es of place, introduced in English by
n'her<\ a^liither^ n'henf.e^ are expressed in Tshi by relatii^e sevicnecs i
attached to certain j)ro)i09ins or mHUts of placv by the relative par- I
tide 'a', viz. nea — rf jtlare /r//f'yT (§ (15), babi a, some place tchere^

§261.262. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 161

babiara a, any place ivhere, fako a, the place where. Such relative
sentences must be considered as adjective sentences belonging to nc(a),
babi, fako, and these expressions are either locative complements (^)
or adjuncts ^J. E. g.

a. Meba nea owg, / shall come tvhere he is. John 7, 34. 1J2, 26. 14, .9.
Nea woko no, meko, whither thougoest, livillfio. ltuthl,16. § 65, 11.

b. Mfrania bo wo nea epe, the icind hloweth ivhere it listeth. John 8,8,
Nea wobewii no, mown, where thou diest, tvill I die, Ruth 1, 17.
Babiara a wobeko no, nicdi wo akyi, / will follow thee ivhitherso-

ever thou (joest. Mat. 8, 19. §65,12.

Hem. When the sentence introduced in English by ivhere &c., is
not an adverbial sentence, but a noun-sentence (§ 255), the expressions
ne(a), bribi(ara), fako, are subjects (^) or attributes^) or objective com-
plements (e.g. after the verb hu, nim, bis a, kyere,)<l), and the
relative sentence is likewise an adjective sentence, E. g.

a. Nea ofi (ho) bae ne nea grekg ahintaw won, whence he came and

tvhither he teas going, tvas hidden from them,

b. Waka me nea okge hg nsem, he told me stories of (the place) ivhere

he had been.

c. Kyere me nea gfae. Minnim fako a gkge. § 257. Mat, 8, 20.

John 14, 3, 4, 5.

2. An instance of real adverbial sentences of place (showing extent),

introduced by senea (cf. § 255, 1. 3. 5. 268.), is the following:

Sonea Filip tunii kgso nhina, gbg mmoden se ahka gretgrc Prote-
stantefo no ase, as far as Fhilipp's power reached, he endeavou-
red to extirpate the Frotestants.

b. Adverbial Sentences of Time.

!2<ll. 1. liy an adverbial sentence of time, an event or state is
mentioned, to show the time of the event or state expressed by the
predicate of tlie principal sentence. We call the former the subordinate,
and the latter the principal event (or state),

2. The subordinate event (or state) shows either (a) some point or
period of time, answering to the question: when? at what time? or (b)
duration of time, answering to the questions: how long? during what
time? since when? till ivhen? or (c) repetition, answering to the que-
stion: ]iow often?

3. The two events (or states) may be simultaneous, or the one may
be antecedent and the other subsequent. The time shown may be
either indefinite, or definite (present, past, or future to the speaker).

!30!3. 1 . When the time of the subordinate event (or state) is in-
definite, i. e. when the case may happen (or be repeated) at any pre-
sent or future time, the particle *a' (with a comma after it) is added
to the adverbial sentence. E. g,

11

162 SYNTAX. § 263. 264.

Owid ^M a, yeb(3sim\ when the sun rises, we shall start,
Owia rebepue a, yeiihii nsoroma bio,

wJien the sun is about to rise^we do no more see the stars.
Obf ykre k, gfwefw6 aduru, wlien one is sick, he seeks for medicine.
Oyar6 f\, obefwefw^ adiiru, when he is sicJc^ he ivill seek for medicAmt.
Ohidni hh b6 «^, ehhy6,

when a poor man makes a proverb, it does not spread.
Oyare n sile k, wonnye ay^resad^, ivhen (or as lon^ as) a sickness

is not yet over, no reward for curing it is asked.

Hem. 1. A condition is expressed in the same way (§ 276, 1), so that
often the sense only decides whether a time shall bo indicated or a
condition, or both views are equally admissible.

Hem. 2. On time (or condition) expressed by co-ordination see § 253^
276'^

2. Sometimes the conjunction na precedes the principal sentence.
Cf. §276, 2. E.g.

Okyer6 won a, na g-ne won n^m abrdrnV bi so,

when he ivas teaching tlicyn, he ivalked with them in a certain porch.
Opete te funu hkil Ji, na orebd,

when the vulture smells a carcase, it comes (fortlnvith).
Ednm no n'nyii nnu won nkyen ^, na woaguan dedaw,

when the enemy has not yet arrived at them, they are fled alrcadjj,

or, they are fled ere the enemy arrives.
Amanehunu dgso a, na Onyame bod no ben,

ivhen distress is greatest^ God's help is nearest.

3. When a repetition of the same case is to be expressed, the wonls
dri or da biara are used in the adverbial sentence. E.g.

Del oretwam' <\, oman ho kodidi, as oft as he passed hy, he turned

in thither to eat bread. 2 Ki. 4, 8.
Da owusihveh hk a, wobere no nh6ma,

as often as the steamer comes, he receives letters.
O'ba da biara k, na wgagudn, whenever he comes, they flee.

!203. When the subordinate event (or state) is in progress, or con-
tinning, at least in its result, in the time prejsent to the speaker, the
demonstrative particle yi is added to the adverbial sentence. E. g.

Mewg wiase yi, mene wiase hAhn, as long as I am in the world,

1 arn the light of the world. John 9, 5.
Mete ase yi, meyi Yehowa aye, while 1 live ivill I praise the Lord.
Woanya aba yi. tvk ase, as you have come noiv, sit doivnl
Worekyerew yi, merekaii iihoma, ivhilstyo^i are writing, lamreadiwU

mekaii iihoma yi, / shall read this hook;

— makan nhuma yi mawie, — 1 have read this letter to Oie end.
O'som yi hhinii, na nsraio rckyii'i refvvefwe no, all the while lie tCdS

thus serving, soldiers were going about seeking for him.

!304. 1. When the time of tbe subordinate event is known to the
speaker as past, or when it is represented as future^ but expected

i

§ 265. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 163

with full certainty, the demonstrative particle no is added to the ad-
verbial sentence. E. g.

Edom bae (or reba) no, nkurofo no guane,

wlien the enemy came (or teas in coming)^ ilie i)eople fled.
Ohene no wui no, nc hk hedii n'ade,

when the kin;) (iiad) died, his son succeeded him.
ObAe ara pe no, misiim', just ivhen he came, I started.
Owi4 n'nyit mpuei no, yesiim', before he sun rose, we started.
Yesu bdba no, nennkmfo ani begye,

when Jesus will come, his friends shall rejoice. Cf. Mat. 25, 31.
Adam wui no, na n'asefo doso bebre,

when Adam died, his descendants were very numerous.
Lot duu Soar no, na avX'id apiie,

the sun ivas risen ivhen Lot entered into Zoar,
WgtoiV Yosef no, na wadi mfe dunson,

Joseph was seventeen years old when he was sold. Cf. Gen. 41, 46.

2. After ara pe, just, ejcactly, occasionally also in other cases, the
particle no is omitted; the adverbial sentence is then distinguished
from a principal sentence only by the higher tones. E. g.

Ohuu no ara pe, oyavv' no. as soon as he saw him, he scolded him.
Otr/ut ase, onym\ akd nnii, he had many ivars to fi(fht in his life.
OtrM ase, wanserew ara da, he never laughed in his lifetime.
Ohene no wui, wannya obi jinnydm no,
irhen the king died, nohody mourned for him.

Hem. When the particle n o is wanting and the principal sentence
begins with na, the adverbial sentence of time also appears as a prin-
cipal sentence; and the case is rather that of co-ordination. § 250, 1 ('. E. g.

Or^ye eyinom nhina, na wonhfi no,

whilst he was doing all this, he tvas not found out.
Ebeye mYe ahanah ni, na Portug^sifo hkk Nkran kdn,

about 400 years ago the Portuguese came first to AJcra.
Wanni mfe dii, na ne nh de no kgfvvee ne nena aninV, he was not

yet ten years old, when his mother brought him to his grandfather.
Eye^ sa' ahkye na owiii, not long after this he died.
Wanwu na ofii as6 porgwe, olive he began to putrify,
Owg n'dgya ofi ara, na ofi tee Kristofo ho ksempd, whilst he 2vas

still living in his fathers house, he had already heard a good report

of the Christians.

!30»>* 1. When the adverbial sentence states the beginning of a
time of some duration, it commences with efi se, since, frequently
ends with no or yi, and precedes the principal sentence. E.g.

Eli se wgwoo me, many are pen, since I was horn, 1 ?ras never sick.
Efi se gbaa hd yi, mihuiino prekd pe,

sinre he came here, I saw him only once.
Efi se gkgtrAd ho no, gyar(^- ara,

sini'e he set I led there, he is continually sick.

164 SYNTAX § 266.

Rem. Duration since a certain event or of a certain state is also
expressed by a principal sentence (with the verb ne) having tJie event
either a. preceding it in a co-ordinate principal sentence^, or b. succee-
ding it in an adjective sentence joined to the nominative complement
y i (which is usually contracted with the verb n e into n i). E. g.

a. Obae, n'afe ni, lit. he came, its year is this, i. e. he came a year
ago; or better:

b, Afe ni a obae, lit. a year is this that he came, i. e. it is a year

since he came.

a. Okoyaree, ne dadu ni, he fell sick (its tenth day is this, i. e.) ten

days ago;

b. (Ne) dadu ni a gyaree, it is tefi days since he fell sick.

a. Oyare (beye) gsram ni, he is sick {will 6e, i. e. about) a month now.

b. Ebeye gsram ni a gyare ara,

it is now about a month that he is sick continually.

2. When the adverbial sentence states the end of a time of some
duration, it is introduced by besi se, kosi sc (kgpem se, kodu
s e &c.), till, imlil^ also in the past, consecutive and imperative forms
(co-ordinate to the predicate of the principal sentence), sometimes com-
bined with the auxiliary verb de, and succeeds the principal sen-
tence. E. g.

Otiiu 'mirika besii se ohtiti yen, he run until he satv us.
On'tra ho nkosi s6 m^ba, he shall stay there till I come,
Ofwee no ara kosii se owiii, he flogfjed him till he died,
Mmusii yi betiw wo de-akosi se wobes^e, this mischief will pursue
thee until thou perish. (Dent. 28, 20. 22. 24.)

I366. 1. When the subordinate event sets in after or during tJw
principal one, the adverbial sentences is introduced by the compound
conjunction ansa n^ (or ansa-na), before. E.g.

Wgwoo Yesii ans<t-ni\ Ilerod^ wui,

Jesus was born, before Herod died.
WodiVka wo ano ansd-na wode mS^ me,

thou didst not taste it, before thou gavest it me.
Onyanie wg ho ansd-na biribiara reba,

God existed before any thing (came into existence).
Wgk;l beree ansa-na oretie, lit. they spoke were tired, before he

listened, i. e. only ly continued entreaties he was persuaded.
Edi\ nuil pi ans;t-na wgrekohd ifamu,

lit. it took (or lasted) many days, before they found his corpsi,

i. e. after several days his corpse was found.
Mureiiwie ^nsd-n?^ mo wura aba,

you will not finish, till your master be come. (Mat. JO, 23.)

Hem. Such an adverbial sentence may be added to another, the
verb of whicli is omitted by way of <d]i])sis. E. g.

Nnauuu [twaam'] ansa-na wohuu no, two days [passed] before the^
found him. i. 0. after ttro daifs ha. teas found.

§'207.20'^. SUBORDINATE SKNTKNCES. 105

Mfe oba ne dumionsa ansd-na worewo Kristo no, Gcrinanefo no
KomafV) kgboec k6, 113 years before Christ was horn, the Ger-
mans hefjan to fi(jht with the liomans.

2. When the principal event is lasting until tlic subordinate event

sets in or is finisbed, tbe adverbial sentence begins witb na and ends

witb ansa (after wbieb a new action replacing tbe principal event

may be supplied). E. g.

na wodkit wo dsem],

and then you may tell your story].

Fra bd, na me nud mmerd ansa
stay here till my brother comes

To wo bo ase, nd raenkyerew' m^ nbOma dnsa, have patience till I
have written my letter [and tlien I sball be at your disposal].

Item. We may as well consider the sentence introduced by na as a
secon<I (co-ordinate) principal sentence, and tbe word ansa as an ad-
verbial adjunct of time, meaning before or meanwhile.

c. Adverbial Sentences of Manner.

t2€l7* Adverbial sentences express tbe manner or der/rce or extent
of tbe action or state expressed in the principal sentence in various ways :

1. by comparison^ sliowing a. manner and quality, as to likeness,
similarity or equality; b. degree, as to equality, inequality (extent or
deficiency) or proportion;

2. by stating an effect or consequence (showing extent.)

(la.) Adverbial Sentences of Comparison showing Manner.

!3i»^« The adverbial sentence of comparison regarding manner is

introduced by te se, se, or senea, and may have no or yi at the

end. It either succeeds the principal sentence «)) oi' '\t2)recedes it, and

the latter is then usually introduced by sa na, sfiara na, sa nso

na, or has saara at the end^O, or a second subordinate sentence

(noun-sentence), likewise introduced by se, is made the complement

to the verb ne (preceding it)c).

a. Onantew te se wabere, he ivallcs as if he tvere tired.
Wanyf won aye se eblnom ye no,

he did not precise them, as others did.
Ebae se(nea) mekae no, it came as I said.
Oyee senea oreko n'anim\

he made as though he would have gone further. Luk. ^1, :^S.
Oye won senea agya ye mmd, he treats them as a father his children.
Monye pe, senea modgy^ a owg s6ro no y6 pc,

be perfect, as your Father that is in heaven is perfect.

Other examples see § 255, 5.
6. Nktl se: S6 oye6 me no, sa nd m6ye no, say not, I will do so to
him as he has done to me. Prov. 24, 29. Cf. Judg. 1, 7.
Sen^a otweky^w yerad mpoano no, sa nso nd borgkyew yerad kwa6m\
(IS it happened to a hat of an antilope's skin to be lost on the

IGG SYNTAX. § 2G9. 270.

seaside, so it happened io a hat of Eiuopean nmnufadurc to he

lost in the hush. Pro v.
Se dote th wo onwcmfo usam' no, sa'ara iik mo uso mot6 wo me nsam\

as the clay is in the potters hand, so arc ye in mine hand. Jer.18,5-
8en6a m6pe se nnipa nye mo no, mo nso monye won saara,

as ye ivoidd that men should do to yoti, do ye also io ihetn Itkc-

tvise. Luk. 6, 31.

C. Senea mo dgyanom ye^ no, s^ nso moy6 nen,

as your fathers did, so do ye.
Se woye adwuma no, se metua wo kdw nen,

as you work, so 1 will reward you.
Se owo nam no, se odd ara nen, as the snake walks, so it sleeps.

Rem. Marnier of a predicate {comparison) may also be expresscil
by co-ordination of another predicate. See in § 253^- Ehia batani hk
piini. Momono tew na guannuan tew. Nsatea nye pono-na nye tee-na.

Abbreviated Sentences of Comparison showing Manner.

SOO. When the adverbial sentence has the same predicate as the
principal one, they both are contracted^ the predicate being expressed
only once. E. g.

Ohene aso te se esono aso [te],

the ear of a kimf is like that of an elephant.
O'ye nndm se gyata [ye nnam], he is as bold as a lion.
Wobu won brd se abosonsomfo [bii won de],

they behave themselves as heathen.
Wosom won ddehye no se nkod [som won' wnranom],

they serve their noblemen like staves.
Wotonton won se [woton] hkod [or: se wonye nkoa),

they sell them as slaves.
Piipd nso fom ade so se nnipa nhhi/i [fom soj,

the pope also is fallible, as all men are.
O'di man no so se [odii so] kdii no,

he rales over the people as formerly.
Wope wee bio se [wopc wee] kan no ara,

they were repulsed arjain, just as before.
Other examples see §255,5.

Item. Such abbreviated sentences of coinj)arison may as well he
considered as adjuncts of manner, introduced by se or to se; e.g.

Oye hii se akokg, he is cowardly like a hen.

Onantew te se oyarefo, he walks like (similar to) a sick man.

Wiien they were parts of elliptical adjective sentences and belonj;
only to a noun, not to a predicate, we may even call them attrihntcs
of manner; e. g.

Da se 'ne, a day similar to to-day. Cf. § 248, 6.

(lb.) Adverbial Sentences of Comparison showing Degree.

270. 1. Equal degree is expressed in the same way as mauucr
in § 268 c. E.g.

§271.272. HUIiOKDJNATE SENTENCES. 167

8c osoro ware sen asase no, se iiMtloo so wo won ;i wosnro no so
no no, as the heaven is IwjJi above the earth, so (jreat is his mere if
toward them that fear him. Ps. lOS^ 11. 12.

2. x\ lower decree is expressed by a negative verb in the principal

sentence and an adverbial sentence with se. E. g.

Owusihyen n'nam nt6in se anoma tu,
a steamer does not run so swiftly as a bird flies.

^5. A hiffher decree expressed in the principal sentence requires the

nse of* kyen or sen before the adverbial sentence with se. K. g.

Oye okwased sen se gye bone, he is more stupid than wicked.
Anonia tii ntem sen se opgnko tu 'mirikd,

a bird flies swifter than a horse runs.
Me bone so ade so kyen se metumi masoa,

my X)iinishment is (jr eater than 1 can bear. (ren. 4, 13.

Abbreviated Sentences of Comparison showing Degree.

127 !• When the predicate is the same in both sentences, the ad-
verbial sentence is unvariably shortened, and nothing remains but
the conjunction se for equal or lower degree, or the verb kyen or
sen (in the affirmative or negative form), with the subject or object
or attribute different from that of the principal sentence. Cf. § 269.

Odo no se [odg] nahkjlsa ne ktird, he loved him as his own soul.
Mepe ]ia se [mepe] ho, / like this place as well as that.
Akuropon ne Mampon ntam' kwdn ware se Aburi ne M^mpgii,

the way from Akropong to Mampong is as far as that from

Aburi to Mampong.
Mepe so me ma okyikafo yi se wo ara,

7 will give unto this last, even as unto thee. Mat, 20, 14.
Sus()no n'so se sono, the riverhorse is not so large as the elephant.
Ks<')no so sen susono, the elephant is larger than the hippopotamus.
Israel do Yosef sen ne mmd nhina,

Israel loved Joseph more than all his children.
So minye memraa wo menseii mmabarima du?

am not I better to thee than ten sons?
Mepe S(3 metra ha mmom sen h6,

/ should rather prefer to stay here than there.
Wopc sfim mmom' kyen hanh no,

they love darkness rather than light.

Adverbial Sentences of Proportion.

tJTtJ, I'he degree of an action, state or quality, is stated as being
in proporiio)i to anotlier action &c. in the form of an adverbial sen-
tence of time, expressing an action simultaneous with that of the prin-
cipal sentence. E. g.

Woreforo bepow tenteh no, nfi aw6w no mu reye d^n,
the higher you ascend a high mountain, the colder it becomes.

1 68 SYNTAX. § 273.

KoiTiJifo lie Kartagofo filiiiia, woreiiya wonlio bji no, iianno worepe
nsA,se foforo akyi kwan, hoth the liomans and the CarthufjimanSy
the richer they grew, the more they sought for new countries,

(2.) Adverhial Sentences of Extent.

!37tl* 1. An adverbial sentence showing the extent of an action
by stating its effect or consequence^ succeeds the principal sentence
and is joined to it

a. by the relative particle 'a'; 6. by the conjunction Be;

6*. by the auxiliary verb ma, ^o give, occasion, cause. E.g.

a, Nkrdntc woo ne nif6m' k ann{ dab{ owiii,

the sword cut his side so that he died soon after.
O-no won ko^ pam won k efi ho wo^mmd bio, he fought with ilicw

and defeated them so that from that time they came no more,
Kse so niudi mpanyin ni k, se wgrekasd k, mumi\d mo jino,

you ought to honour old people, so that, tvhen they speak, you

forhear talking, Cf. Gen, 41, 10, such as.

Hem. Two examples converted into contracted sentences with co-
ordinate negative predicates, see in § 253* C 1.

Obi mmiia n'ano nni fo = obi mmua n'ano a obedi fo.
Obi nnidi nnii neho = obi nnidi a obenu neho.

h. Nnae no nVare se obi betee ne mu wg so, na mmuatAm no n's<^
se ode bebum no so, the hed is shorter than that [lit. not (so) lonij
that] a man can stretch hifnself on it, and the covering narrower
than that he can wrap himself in it,

c. Oteem' mil eye hfi, he cries (so that it causes fear, i. e.) fearfully,

Ok'^k asem no mk ey6e iiw6nwll,
he spoke the ivord (so that it caused iconder, i.e.) wonderfully,

Sa' ahohorA yi ye6 no yjiw xxxk etrda so, this ignominy grieved him
(so that it went heyond, i. e.) excessively.

Obog no ma gtge, he struck him so that he fell (dead),

Ok^k dgm no gui ma wgde hi"! ne suro guane,
he defeated the enemy so that they fled with fear and terror,

Ankytj na wgatiitu dgm no agu ma wgde mmirikA agui^n,
they had soon repulsed the enemy and put them to hdsty lUffM.

Edgm no dii asasc^. no so nneema fihlnti m{\ esile, ma gkgm kuin'
nnipa pi, the host ate tip everything in the country, so tliaJt many
persons died from hunger. (Odi ma esa, he eats causes to be con-
sumed, i e. he eats tip.)

Otumi tow bo a eye diiru mk edu akyiri, he is able to Ou'OiP
heavy stone (so that it arrives hehi)id, i. e.) very far,

2. The extent of an action may also be expressed by an adv. »cDf.

introduced by kosi se, kodu se &c. (equal to an adv. sent, of time,

§ 265, 2). E. g.

Wokunkum' wgn kosii se wogiiu wgn ase,
they smote them until they had destroyed them. Josh. 11^14,

§ 274. 275. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 169

d. Adverbial Sentences of Cause,

t274* Adverbial sentences of canse indicate

1 . a real cause, occasion, motive, ground or reason (cf. § 2:ts, l ) ;

2. a condition-, 3. a concession ; 4. an intention ov irar^tose,

Il27f>* (1 .) A real cause, motive or reason is expressed by adverbial
sentences in the following ways;

1. The adverbial sentence, preceding the principal, is introduced by
the words esiane se, or efi se, or so alone, and has the postposition
(or conjunctive particle) nti at the end. E. g.

Esiane se 6ye anOm da di nokwjlrc nti, ankye na 6nyfi;\ opanyih

bi dii, hecause he was always diligent and faith fid, he was soon

entrusted with an office,
Esiane s(3 wosii won bo n^ ey6e nti, Onyankopon nhyira 4min4 so,

as they had done it in selfwill, Gods blessing was not upon it.
Efise wotan n6 nti, wokiim' no,

hecause tJiey hated him, they killed him.
So mafrc na mokame nti, merenifre mo bio, because I have called

and ye refused, 1 will not call you again. (Frov, i, 24-26.)

Hem, 1. The verb siane means to go alongside, or like fi, to pro-
ccdc from, and nti may be considered as meaning the starting-point
(§ 121). This word, after the omission of the verb, denotes causality
by itself, as a mere postposition. Cf. § 240^f. />.

Hem. 2. When the words esiane se, efise or se are dropped, e. g.
wotan no nti, wokiim' no, the remaining subordinate sentence with nti
at the end may still be considered as an adverbial sent, of cause,
and the postposition nti might then be taken for a subordinafive con-
junction (not mentioned as such in § 141, but cf, 1 Be), as we call
enti = eno nti, at the head of a principal sentence, a co-ordinative
conjunction, § 140. But we may also consider the subordinate sen-
tence * wotan no' as a noun-sentence belonging to the postposition nti
and forming with it an adjunct of cause (§ 255, 6a) :^ nitan nti
(§ 240/>). The latter view agrees better with the case of an impera-
tive sentence before nti, as in *Huw m'ani so ma me nti', wherefore
we adopt it also for the other cases in § 255, 6a. §279, 2 Hem. 2. S.

2. The adverbial sentence, introduced by efise, or se alone, suc-
ceeds the principal; it may also have ntia added at the end. E.g.

Wasopa me, efise miyii n6 bone adi ntia, he has slandered me, be-
cause I revealed his wickedness. — Cf. Mat. 16, 7, 8.

Yeanya aburow' pi, efise asas6 no ye,
we got much corn, because the land is good.

Ode abo yiy^, efise osii ato pi,
yam has grown ivell, because it has rained much.

])a no ase se wdboa wo, thank him that he has helped you.

Won ani gyel se wdwu, they rejoiced that he was dead.

Minnu^I se mabesoe Mesek ! Ps. 120,5. Cf. Mat. 23, 13-15. 23, 25.

no SYNTAX- § 27G.

Wok/i boom' se wo-iio Napoloon auya, thcji entered into a confede-
racy^ (the motive of which was) that they and Napoleon had (jot
(scil a fijjlhinfj, war) i. c. they united against Napoleon.
Hem. In the sentence "Aliene basd no ka boom' s(j wo-ne omafi no
ne ko, the three kings joined (and declared, or J in declaring war to
the coiintrp^^ the conjunction n^ stands in th(5 place of a verb; we
may call it an adverbial sentence of wanner or of 2^urpose.

3. The adverbial sentence, preceding the principal, has the particle
'a' or yi at the end. E.g.

Manuyd otg nianto wo m6 dgm anim a, mede m^ nkrante m^rebere

wo, as I did not fall at the head of w// army, I am bringing you

my sword,
Yedye no sa yi, n^ as6m bi nni ho bio, as we have thus managed

if, there is nothinfj to he said (or done) concerning it any more.
Oda so ye mer6w yi, ontumi n'tii kwdn no,

as he is still weak, he cannot undertake that journey.
Hem. The cause expressed by a co-ordinate sentence, see § 252.

270. (2.) A possible cause or condition is expressed
1. by an adverbial sentence preceding the principal, with the par-
ticle 'a' at the end (which has always the low tone and a comma
after it, distinguished by the latter from the relative particle *a'); of.
§257). E.g.

Woye abofrd a, nserew akwatia,

if you are a child, do not deride a short man.
Wo^nyil woh6 k, to wo pon mu d4,

if yon are rich, shut your door (when you) sleep.
Woto adiir' ^, ebi ka wMno,

//' you administer poison, some of it touches your 7nouth.

'2. In certain cases, when some emphasis is laid ou the condition,
the principal sentence begins with na. Cf. § 2G2, 2.

Obi do wo a, na gsere wo ho ade,

//* anybody loves you, (then) he ivill beg of you.
Wudi bi ade a, na wofere no,

if you get food of any one, (then) you respect him.

3. Sometimes the conjunction se is put at the head of the coudttional

sentence. (The word eba or etg, it comes, happens^ chances, is to

be supplied before se.) E.g.

Se gkgm de wo tdmfo k, ma no aduan'; se osukgm deno a, uiii no
biribi nnom, //' thy enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give hiw
drink. Itom. i^, ^0.

Item. In these sentences, introduced in English by the conjunction
//', the conditional action is conceived as doubtful. In others it is c*m-
ceived as actually taking place, though at an indefinite time, — intro-
duced by when, § 262, — and in others again as adversative to the
consecjuential action, the latter taking place in spite af the former,
introduced by though, § 27f^.

i

I

L

§ 27 (y^ SUKOliDINATE SENTENCES. 171

4. When a ttvofold condUion is given, the disjunctive particle '(V is

nsed instead of the final 'a'. Cf. § 278, *3. E. g.

Se yete ase o, se yewii o, yeye Awurade dea,
whether we live, or die, ive are the Lord's. Rom. 14, 8.

5. When the condition is conceived as merely imaginary (when the
case is known to be not real), the principal sentence takes the con-
junction aiika, then, in this case. E.g.

Se me wo sikd a, ahkfi meto otiio,

if I had money, I should buy a f/un.
Enye n'adamfo ntl a, anka wgdkum no,

hut for his friend, he would have been hilled.
. 'Ka akyekyere ne nwdw nko a, anka otiio n'tow wiiram' da,

//' there were only snails and tortoises, no (fun would ever be fired

in the bush.
'To tamfo hkd a, anka woakum me,

if I had onli/ enemies, 1 should have been killed.
'Ka nea oko Aburokyiri nko a, anka Abibimah abo, if he who went

to the white mans country alone were concerned, Nefjruland would

have been ruined.

Item. I'lie words ka and to in the three last examples stand ibr
eka . . . a, if there would remain, eto or etoo . . . a, //" it would fall
or if it fell (to . . .).

o'yijtt. 1. An adverbial sentence of (time or) condition in English,
especially when connected with a> neijative principal sentence, may
often be found expressed in T«hi by co-ordination ; the conditional
sentence is then delivered as a principal sentence negatived like the
other, E. g.

Obi m'prd, na obf n'ses4w\ one does not sweep, and another does not
take up, i. e. when one person sweeps, another does not take up (the
sweepings and carry them out), or: the same person, who sweeps,
will carry out the sweepings.

Akosua m'mo mmusu na Akud m'fa, Akosua does not do mischief and
A/cua does not take i. e. suffer it, i. e. when Akosua causes misrhief,
it will not fall on Akua, or, Akua docs not answer (and is not
punished) for it.
Other examples, also with affirmative predicates, see in § 253'*

2. When two sentences, standing in such or similar relation to each
other, have a common subject, the conjunction na in omitted, and both
are contracted into one sentence with co-ordinate negative predicates.

Cf. § 253a 2r>s, 5.

Obf n til mmer6 n'sie siw so, one does not gather mushrooms does
not reposit them on an anthill, i. e. when one gathers m., he does
not reposit them i^^c,

Obf n s6 ^yk foforo m'fd iVwdw ntom*, when one kindles a new fire,
fie does not put snails into it.

172 SYNTAX. §277-279.

5J77. An adverbial sentence stating an exception^ or a condition
under which the negation of a predicate is annulled, is introduced by
gye sc (or se ^y ^) and succeeds the principal sentence. E. g.

Wurennii, gye sO wiitu mmirikd (== sc wuntu 'mirika a, wurennu,
or, se wutu 'mirika a, wobedu), you will not arrive, except you run,

Meremma wohko, ^yii se wuhy\rk me,
/ will not let thee (jo, except tlioii hless me. Gen, 32, 26,

Orenhome, ^y(b se owie asem yi di 'ne, he will not he in rest, un-
til he have finished the thimj this day. liuth 3, IS.

Wontwe adewia ho asd, ^yii se nea owiaa ade no Jinhd wiA,
they do (or mually did) not inflict puniHliment for theft except the
tliief did not tiudcr stand to steal, i, e. tvas not cunniny enouyh,

t£7H. (3.) A concession or adversative cause, i. e. a circumstance
whicli might seem adverse to the predicate of* the principal sentence,
is expressed:

1. by an adverbial sentence with *a' at the end and an emphatic
particle (po, nso, ara) in it. E.g.

Minnya mu iwe po a, meye ara,

thouyh 1 profit nothiny hy it, I shall do it still.
Mihtl mu amiine nso ky mekurdm' ara,

even if I mast suffer hy it, I shall keep to it.
Osd se deri ara a, metiimi no,

however yreat he may he, I shall be a match for him,
Nso raenam owu-siinsuraii bon mu a, minsuro bone bi, yea, tJiotUfh

1 walk throuyh the valley of the shadow of death, I wiU fear no evil.

Rem. A condition may be understood as adversative without ^an
emphatic particle. E. g.

Okom de wo h, wom'fa wo nsa abieiV n'nidi,
thouyh you are hunyry, you do not eat with both hands,

2. Sometimes the concessive sentence is introduced by sc (cf. §276,3),
or by the compound conjunction kansese. E.g.

Se me-ne wo bewu po a, merempa wo,

thoayh I should die with thee, yet will I not deny thee.
Se kansese eware se eheara a, na grebd,

however far it jniyht be, he was sure to come.
Se 6dii nea esc so woye yiye, na kansese eho wo ber6 po i, wain-

mil «anye no ahometew, ivhen occasion was given to do yoody thotufh

trouble might have been connected with it, he was not dismayed.

3. Instead of the final *a', the disjunctive particle *o' is used when

a twofold concession is stated. Cf. § 276, 4.

O'di bem 6, odi to <^, okum ara nk wobckum no, ivhether he be «l-
nocent or guilty, by all means they will kill him.

379. (4.)A final cause, i. e. a cause conceived as the aim^ purpose
or intention of an acting or directing subject, is expressed by au ad-
verbial sentence succeeding its principal one.

1

§ 279. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 173

1. The adverbial sentence is introduced by se,

a. with the verb in the progressive or future or inifressive present form,
when its subject is the same as that of the principal sentence ;

h, with the verb in the imperative form, when the suhject of the ad-
verbial sentence is different from that of the principal one, and tlie
purpose is represented as a decided desire, E. g.

a. Yesu Kristo baa wiase s^ obegye nnipa hkw^, Jesus Christ came

into the world to save men (or, that he might save men).
Odehye hi koo asase bi so se orekogy^ n'ah^nni, a certain nohle-

man went into another country to receive for himself a kingdom.

(Liik. 19, 12.)
Ode dum akohye won kwdh wo ho s6 gmma wontwdm', there he has

stopped the ivay against them ivith an army^ not suffering them

to pass.
Wobehyiae se wgbetra ho tise afwe s^ wgbeye no,

tliey assembled to deliberate, how they tvould manage it,
Oguaii kgo Osii se gkgfa po ani ak6 Ogua,

he fled to Christiansborg in order to go to Cape Coast by sea.
Otraa korow mu se orefi hy^ii nom'' asi fam\

he sat into a boat that he might come from the ship to the land.

b. Onyame somaa ne ba baa wiase s^ 6mmegye nnipa hkwfi, God sent

his son into the world to save men {that he might come to save men).
Yiidafo sere^ Pildto se gmma wghkokum' Y^su,

the Jews entreated Pilate, that he should have Jesus killed.
Omdn mma apfiw won so wgnye wgn ananmiisifo,

the citizens have chosen them to be their representants.

2. The adverbial sentence is introduced by the conjunction na

a. with the verb in the consecutive form, when the purpose is repre-
sented more as an expectation or natural consequence, than as a
decided desire;

b. with the verb in the affirmative form of the (2d) imperative, after
a 1st or 2d imperative.

c. When, after an imperative, the verb of the accessory sentence is

nvgalive, the consecutive form is used, as in the cases under \a.

a. Maiikasa meye, n^ moasiisuw so aye bi, I myself shall do it, that
you may imitate it (lit. fhinJc on it and do it likewise).
Wghye mim nkyene na amprgw ntem,
meat is salted, that it may not soon be spoiled. •
Franse bene bi a 6bgg dtlm nti na wgde hhomatow ba^, n^ ode
agye n'ani, on account of a certain king of France that was mad,
card-playing was invented, that he might amuse himself
Onyame de ne ba koro ma^, na oblara a obegye no adi no A,nyerd,
nk wanya da nkwa, God gave his only son, that whosoever belie-
veth in him should not perish, but have everlastini} life.
Cf. § 258, 5 limn,
h. Kobisfl no, na yenhu mu nokwdre!

go ask him, that we may learn the truth of it!

1 74 SYNTAX. §280.

A'f^i gyk no kwaii na gnkg fie!

now dismiss him, that he may go home!
Monyc komm, nd minnya nnd menna!

he silent, that 1 may find sleep!
Yk ogyaten dl n'anim' nk onbu kwdfi {or: C. na wanyerA gkwdn),

qo before him tvith a torch, that he may find the tcay (or: that

he may not go astray).

C. Kose no, na wann{ nkwaseas^m,

go, tell him, in order that he do not commit a folly,
Fwe woh6 yiye na obf annada wo,
tcike care of yourself, that nobody deceive you. Mat 6, 1; 7, 1. G.

Hem. 1. When tbe accessory sentence witb na and the verb in the
consecutive form migbt be mistaken for a co-ordinate principal sentonco
witb na and tbe perfect, tbe verb ye may be used before it. E.g.

Mpanyimfo no bg6 mmgdeh ye6 s^nea nknrofo p^ no, de y^e na
gmanfo no bo atg wgn, the elders endeavoured to do as the people
desired, in order that the citizens might be contented.

Rem. 2. Wben tbe purpose sball be mentioned before the principal
sentence, the adverbial sentence with n a and its verb in the conse-
cutive form takes a form of tbe verb ye (in the present or future)
before it, and is thus made an attribute of the postposition nti, form-
ing with it an adjunct of cause. §255, 6 a.

Wgye na mmarimdwa no ahti b^mmatow nti, Spdrt^f6 mil won nkod,
na wgde won stik ye, that the boys might learn to shoot tvith the
bow, the Spartans gave them slaves at ivhom they exercised it.

Oy6 nil asem bi kxnmk akyiri nti, gmii wokum won,
to cut off' any consequences, he had them hilled.

Nea cbeyc na vvganya sikii nti, wosii gman no kpemp^m gye^ sikd
sgnea wgnara pe, in order to get money, they ivilfully extorted
money from the people.

Rem. 3. A (complex) noun-sentence before the postposition nti, form-
ing with it an adjunct of cause (cf. §255, 6 a. 275, 1 Hem. 2.)^ which
expresses a circumstance of purpose, we have also in the following
proverb :

Yepe a yebehu nti na yekyekyere boa, in order thai we may find
(a thing) ivhen tve wish (it), we tie bundles.

Abbreviated Sentences of Purpose,

280. 1 . A contraction of the principal sentence and the adverbial
sentence of purpose into one sentence with co-ordinate verbs takes place,
when (in the case mentioned in §279, la.) the conjunction 8e and
the subject of the adv. sent, is omitted.

a. The verb of the adv. sent, is joined to the principal Hentence

in co-ordination, retaining its form. E.g..

PrussHo asiesie wonb6 dedaw rekgko ^—- se wgrekgk6,
the Prussians had prepared themselves already to figJU,

i

§281. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 175

h. The verb or verbs of the adv. sent, is or are joined to the prin-
cipal sentence in the consecutive form ; cf. § 250, 2. E. g.

Yebesiah akgto aduah' abere wo,

we shall go doivn to buy food for thee.
N'asuafo ko kurow no mii akoto nnuan',

his disciples were gone aivay unto the city to buy meat. John 4, 8.
Mokg mabk, 1 go (with the intention) to return again.
Mesore mat^e me mu, 1 rise to stretch my hack.
Mesere aduah' madi. Mesere nsii kakrd manom.
Mihiiam' ta niatie(or mafwe) se ey^ ^na. Meso aduah' mafwe.

Cf, Biis, Outline cite. §213,3.

c. When the verb of the principal sentence is negative, that of the
adv. sent, (co-ordinate to the former) is made negative too. E. g.

A'fei yehkg akura h'koto hkesud bio,

now ive shall no more go to the village to buy eggs.
Yenntnl ho n'nye eno ho akyinny^ adesae, tve shall not sit there

disputing about that until evening (or, all day).
Obi n'nyaw' asuteh h'kgnora gtjlre, (one does not leave i. e.) nobody

leaves a flowing ivater (does not go to drink i. e.) in order to

drink from a pool.

2. After locative verbs implying direction, the verb of tlie adv. sent,
is put in the infinitive, so that it forms, as it were, a locative comple-
ment to the principal verb; and such an infinitive of a transitive verb
is preceded by its object, as if it were an attribute in the possessive
case, or forms a compound with it. Cf. § 126.208,4. E.g.

Wgkgg afow, they went a-foraging.

Okgg aburow' to = okg^ se grekgtg aburow', he tvent to buy corn.
Masoma no hkokg to = se ghkgta hk., I sent him to buy fowls.
Aduantg na yebae = yebAe se yebetg aduah', ive came to buy food.
[Yebaa hk b6tgg aduah' (Gen. 48, 20) expresses that they obtained
their purpose : ive came here (and) bought food]
Onipa ba no amma ammesee nnipa kara, na obegyee wgh. Luk.O, 50.

CHAPTER III.
Manifold Compound Sentences.

!S81. Of co-ordinate principal sentences (§249-253), more than
two may be joined together in the one or other way (coj^ulativc, or
adversative, or causative, or illative), and any of them may be co7n-
plex. E. g.

B<^-reye ye nnada, na aliogfe ye ahuhude; gbea A, osuro Yehowj^ na

wobeyi no aye. Prov. 31, 30.
We forboiir giving many exaiii])les, as thoy would not present any new teatoi'es,
but only combinations of such as have been treateJ of already.

176 SYNTAX, -2^2 §

In reviewing the various combinations in the subsequent paragraphs,
we mark the principal sentences by the capital letters A for indepen-
dent or copulatively co-ordinate sentences, B for adversative, and C
for causative or illative sentences.

I38I3. Any principal sentence may have two or more suhordinate
sentences^ not only of the same kind, but also of diflFerent kinds, as
described in § 254-280.

We shall, in § 282-284, mark the noun-sentences by «, the adjective
sentences by 7>, and the different kinds of adverhial sentences by c.
When a sentence is interrupted by the insertion of another, we mark it
twice by the same letter, before and after the insertion, with the addi-
tion of a hyphen after and before the letter, to indicate that other mem-
bers of the sentence are found after or before the intervening words.

We distinguish several cases :

1. Two or more subordinate sentences of the same kind belong to
the same principal sentence or the same single member of it. In this
case they are co-ordinate among themselves, and connected by the
copulative conjunction na or the disjunctive conj. anase; the par-
ticles introducing or ending them, are generally put only once (the
particle se may occasionally be repeated); but the relative part. *a\
connecting an adjective sent, with any member of a principal (or ot"
a subordinate) sentence, may be repeated with every new adjective
sentence, instead of the conj. na. E.g.

Kobisd no se obekg afiim anase gbetnt offe, (jo (and) ask him whe-
ther he will go to the plantation or stay at home, (A a a,)

Okramaii k 6ba6 'nera na wopam' no no, wasdh abk, the dog that
came yesterday and was driven away, has come again. (A- h 6, ^A.)

M'dgya ma me kwjln na me ho ye me den a, meko Ogua , lohen mt/
father gives me leave and I am well, I shall go to Cape Coasts (a t\ A.)

Wun'ni uh nd wokg obi i'i agoru, na otu ne mmjl f6 k: w6de th wo
ho bi, if thou hast no mother and goest into one's Jiouse to play
and she gives her children an admonition, thou takest it for thy-
self also. Prov. (c c c, A.)

Auantwi k won ho ye tan n^ woafomfon no dil ason k woii ho ye
fe na won ho tua won ho no. Gen. 41, 4. (A- h b -A h h.)

Obea bi a ne din d^ Lidui a 6tgh tahkgkg' k ofi Tiatin\ kur6w mii
a gierc Nyahkopgh tee. Acts 16, 14. {A- h h h h -A.)

2. Two or more subordinate sentences of different kinds (a, h. c.)
may belong to the same principal sentence. E. g.

Oni'pa reba a, wonse no se: bera,

when a man is coming, you do not bid him come, (c, A: a.)
MihAii no no, miguane, elise misuroe,

when I saw him, J fled, because 1 was afraid, (r, A^ c.)
Nneema yi rell ase aba k, monfwe gsoro na momma mo ti b6, eiise

mo i^yv ri'bei'i. Luli. 21, ^S. (c, A A, c.)

§ 282. 283. MANIFOLD COMPOUND SENTENCES. 177

3. A subordinate setitence may have another sentence subordinate
to it, and the latter again another. We mark the distance from the
principal sentence by adding the figures -, ^ for the second and third
degree, the first degree wanting no such distinction. E. g.

Eye mo se, onom mmorosd. da nti, n'ddw^nem' as6e, it seems to me
that his senses are deranged because he is always drinking rum.
(A, c\ a.)

Abofra k okura nh6ma k 6fi Aburokyiri no bae no, mibisd^no se
ofi Osu ana? ivhcn the hoy with the letters from Europe came^
I asked him, whether he 2vas from Christiansborg, (c- b^ b^ -c, A a.)

Farao bisa rao se: Mo ddwiima ne d6n? a, munseno s^: Wo nkod
ye mmoafwefo fi yen' mmofrAase d^ bedii 'ne: — na moatril G6s^n
asase so, tvhen Pharao asks you saying: tvhat is your occupation,
(then) tell him saying : Thy servants are shepherds from our youth
until now : that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen, Gen. 46,33.34,
(c: a\ A: a:-c.)

So muhu Yerusalem se dgm atw^ ho ahyia a, eno na muhtl se n6
bo abon. Luk. 21, 20. (c a% A a.)

Ese noa obt\ Oiiyankopoh iiky^n no s6: 6gye di s6 owo ho n^ oye
won a wofwefwe n'akyi kwdn no k^tudf6. Heh,ll,6, (Ah: a a-

S8»5- A succession of well arranged sentences forming one whole,
especially when a concatenation of subordinate sentences is embodied
in it, is called a period. In every period there is a multipartite for-
7ner part, which is completed by the apodosis.

Instead of entering into the different kinds of manifold compound
sentences and periods, we only point out some passages from the Bible,
containing such, and indicate the different sentences according to § 281.
282., together with their punctuation, and showing, by the sign [j, where
the apodosis of the period begins.

Se iiyansa ba wo komam na ohu so wo kara ani a, || adwempa be-
fwe wo so, na ntease abg wo ho bah. Prov. 2, 10. (c C, A, A.)

PrOV. 1 (v. 24) C, C, C, C, (25) C, CI |1 (26) A; c. A,

(v. 27) c c, c: II (28) A, B; A, B;

(v.- 20) C, C, (30) C C:\\ (3i) A, A. (32) C, C, (33) B, B,

Prov. 2 (v. i) A-, c c, (2) c c: (3) c c, (4) c c: \\ (5) -A, A, (O) C, C.
Ps. 107 (v. 10) A'bb: (U) c^ c\ (i2) b, b, b: (i3) b, b; (U) b, b: ||

(v.i5) 'A: (10) c, c.

Whilst these 7 verses ai'e only cue principal sentence in the form of a period,
the former part of which is built up of 9 adjective sentences, the following 6 ana
10 verses form periods of suuilai* content, but which are built up of 10 and 16
principal sentences,

Ps. 107 (v. 17) A; (18) A A: (19) A, A] (20) A A: \\ (21) A, (22) A, A,

Ps, 107 (v. 23) A' b b, (24) 'A: (25) A a, a; (26) A A, A; (27) A, A;

(v. 28) A, A, (29) A a a; (30) Ac, A b: \\ (3i) A, (32) A, A.

Ps. 1 (v.i) A b, b, b: (2) b, b: || (3) Abb, b; A- b -A. (4) B: B b,

(v. 5) C, C. (6) C, C.

12

178 APPENDIX L § 284. 285.

:. Not only suhordinaiey especially adjectivey sentences are often
found inserted between the members of other (principal or subordinate)
sentences, but 2)rmcipal (and even complex and co-ordinate) sentences
also may be thrown in between tlie parts of another sentence^ inter-
rupting their connection. They are usually put in parenthesis; some-
times the dafih is used before and after such a sentence, instead of
the parenthesis.

Se meko m'agya nkyen na abofra yi hka yen ho a, (nso ne kara

fam abofra yi de ho,) ebeba se: se ohu se abofra yi nka yen ho

a, obewu. Gen. 44, 30. 31. (c c, (AJ A a-: c- tt^ -a,)

Cf. Jyuk. 1, 55. 70. 23, 51. Joh. 6, 23, Acts 1, 15. 12, 3. 13, 8. Rom. 4, 17. 7, 1.

1 Cor. 8, 1—3. 9, 21. Col. 4, 10. Heb. 7, 11. 19. 20-22. 9, 1—12. 12, 20. 21

1 Joh. 1, 2. 3 Joh. 1. 5.

APPENDIX I.
On Subjects connected with Orthogrraphy.

A. PUNCTUATION.

I38S. We may comprise the main principles of punctuation in
some simple rules.

1. The parts of a simple sentence, subject, predicate, corapleraents
and adjuncts, being either simple, or enlarged by attributes or by
adjective sentences, are not separated from each other by any point
whatever, except the following cases:

a. When such a member is put at the head of the sentence, for
the sake of emphasis or perspicuity^ and is not followed by na, it
is usually marked off by a comma, espec. when the emphatic and
restrictive particle de is used with it (en' de, on' de, me de, won de).
'^rhe comma may, however, be omitted, when the sentence is short
and the sense plain without it. Examples see §247.201,5.

h. The vocative is stopped off by a comma. Many interjections also
have comma (or tiote of exlamaiion) after them.

c. Nouns in apposition are in some cases separated from each other
by a comma. § 190, 4.

2. In contracted sentences,

a. co-ordinate subjects, comjdements or adjuncts are separated from
each other by a comma, as far as they are not connected by the eonj.
ne; § 245, 1. 3-5. cf. Gen. 10. 25, 15. 32, 14. 15. Exod. 1, 2-4, 20, 10.

h. complements or adjuncts of different kinds are usually not separa-
ted from each otiier by points. § 246, 3.

§ 285. PUNCTUATION. 179

3. Co-ordinate principal sentences are separated

a. by a comma, when they are simple and short, and copulative
or adversative to each other, connected hy the conjunctions na, nan so,
nso; §250.251.

h. by a semicolon, when they are enlarged, especially when the one
or the other is complex; when they are co-ordinate without a con-
junction; when the co-ordination of three or more sentences \^ partly
copulative and partly adversative (§281); also before illative conjunc-
tions (§ 252) ;

c. by a colon, when the succeeding sentence is explanatory to the
preceding, or when, after several copulative sentences, one or more
sentences are illative or adversative, stating a reason, inference or
consequence, or a strong contrast.

The "general principle that regulates the choice of either, is the closeness of the
coimection between the pai'ts of the compound sentence. — Examples are easily found
in the Proverbs of Solomon (chap. 10—29) and in proverbs of the natives (cf. Primer
for the Vernac. Schools in Akuap., 1872, pag. 40 — 58.

4. Subordinate sentences, preceding the principal one :

a. Adverbial sentences having a, no, yi, at the end, are separated
by a comma, when they are single or not more than two (§ 262-265, 1),
and by a colon, when they are three or more,

6. Adv, sentences having nti at the end, are usually stopped off
by a comma. §275,1.

5. Subordinate sentences, succeeding the priticipal one;

a. Noun-sentences introduced by se (that), either have not any point
before them, espec. when they are simple or short; or they have a
comma, or better a colon, before them, which is inserted after se, —
when the noun-sentence is of a wider extent, or of a complex nature.
§ 255, 16. 2. 36. 6. 256 Rem,

b. Noun-sentences introduced by se, or direct quotations, have a
colon before them (after s e) ; but if the quotation is indirect, no point
18 used. E. g. Asum wo : soa me (Prov), § 255, 3.

c. Noun-sentences or adverbial sentences introduced by se or senea
{=hoiv) have not any point, or, at the most, a comma, before them.
§ 255, 5. 268. 270.

d. Adverbial sentences introduced by ansa-na, na . . ansS, besi se,
kosi se, may have a comma before these compound conjunctions, or
not, §266,1.2.265,2.

e. Adv. sentences introd. by efise, esiane se, se, or by n a with the
fferb in the consecutive form, have a comma before them; before the
•oosecutive na, however, it is often omitted. § 275, 2. 279, 2. Before
tfy introducing an adverb, sentence of purpose, the comma is omitted,
keeanse the little pause in speaking is rather after, than before it. § 279,1.

180 APPENDIX I. § 286.

6. Adjective sentences, joined to the subject or to any other noun
or pronoun in the midst or at the end of a sentence, are not marked
off by any point. § 257. 64. 65.

7. Suhordinate sentences, co-ordinate among themselves, are separa-
ted from each other only by the comma^ and even this is omitted,
when they are simple and short and connected by the conj. na, or
when in a succession of adjective sentences the relative particle 'a' is
repeated. § 282, 1 .

8. ^riic note of interrofjation is used at the end of interrogative
sentences with direct questions, whether they be independent, or form-
ing part of another sentence (as subordinate noun-sentences standing
in the place of an object). §153. E.g.

Wobisa me se: Ne dfn de den? k, deii nh. mf use won? when they
ask me. What is his name ? what shall 1 say nnto them ? Exod, 5, 13.

9. T\\o, note of exclamation is used

a. after many interjections, § 144-147.

h. after vocatives, when the enclitic e (§ 144) is appended, and
when a sentence spoken to the addressed person does not closely follow.

c. after an optative sentence, §1^1.

d. after direct imperative sentences, § 152, espec. when they are
short or uttered with some affertion, not in tlie quiet way of instruction.

e. after exclamatory sentences, §153.

Hem. T\\G 710 te of exclamation may also be used in an objective
notm-sentence inserted into another; e.g. Osee won se: mini! no, w6-
pinii nkyirinkyiri, na wofwefwee ase. Joh. 18, (i.

10. ^rhe fidl stop is used

a. at the close of a complete sentfmce (wlien no note of interrogation
or of exclamation takes its place) ;

h. after ahhreviations of single words, also after fi/fures standing

for ordinal numerals', e.g.

Afe 1873. Yan. 9. Napoleon III. wui = afe a eto so ajiem ahanwot^e
adugsoh-abiesa mu Yanuari da a etia akrou no so. Napoleon a oto
so abiesd no wui.

11. The parenthesis ( ) is used a. to mark a sentence throton in
hetiveen the parts of another sentence, neither necessary to the grammar,
nor to the accuracy of the sense (§ 284) ; h, to add an expla/naUon
or equivalent of the expression after which the j^^rcn thesis is inserted.

12. Brackets [ ] indicate a. a, parenthetic sentence, which occasionally
may contain another parenthesis in curves, or which is contained within
such other parenthesis ; 6. explanations or equivalents of singlo expres-
sions; c, in the I'shi Bible also words not contained in the Hebrew
or Greek text, but inserted in the translation for the sake of distinctness.

§ 285. 286. PUNCTUATION. CAPITAL LETTERS. 181

13. The dash is made use of iu various ways:

a. it marks a sudden break or Iransilion;

h. it marks an unexpected or an emphatic pause;

c. it marks a consider ahle pause, greater than the stops used require;

d. it is used before and after a parenthesis, instead of the curves
or brackets in 11. and 12. §284.

e. between two numbers it represents the numbers that intervene.

Some other marks used in writing and printing are the following:

14. The apostrophe (') is used to indicate the elision of one or
more letters of a word.

15. The quotation points (" " and * ') mark ^ovdis SiS quotations.
The single quotation points are used to mark oflP a quotation within
a quotation, or a quotation in sense, but not in exact words, or a single
unconnected tvord or letter.

16. The hyphen (-) is used to connect loosely compounded words
(§ 30, 2), to divide a word into syllables (§ 23. 24.), and, when placed
at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word
are carried to the next line.

17. The ellipses ( — ) or (. . .) mark the omission of letters or words.

18. The hyphen, or the dash, or the double quotation points are
also put when words or figures, that stand above them, are to be
repeated or understood, — In hymns the mark :,: shows that the word
or words preceding it in the same line, or the words included between
two such marks, are to be repeated.

19. The paragraph or section (§) marks the smaller divisions of a
book or chapter, — In the Bible the sign ^ is used to mark the
commencement of a new subject,

20. The asterisk, or little star (*), and the obelisk, or dagger (f),
or doublings of the two, and the paragraph or section (§ or ^), are
used as marks of reference.

B, CAPITAL LETTEIiS,

I3S6. The use of large or capital letters iu ^I'shi is more restricted
tliau in English. We employ them at the beginning of the following
words :

1. TliG first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other
piece of writing, but not necessarily the first word in every line of poetry.

2. The first word after a full stop, also, after a note of interrogation
or explanation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are
indepeudent of each other.

3. The first word of a direct quotation, excepting very short ones
liiat stand in the place of an object or are inserted in another sentence

382 APPENDIX I. §287.

Onihafo se : gkyena meye, the sluggard says, To-morrow 1 shall do it
Mise m'akoa se: ye eyi! a, gye. Luk,7^8,

4. .Every proper name (of persons, places, streets, rivers, ships,
mountains, days, months, &c.) ; also common nouns when personified,

jRem. 1, In the second part of imperfect compounds (§ 30, 2) a
small letter may suffice; e. g. Nord-amerika, New-york, Betlefaem-ynda
(Judg. 19,18.), Harun-al-rasid. On the contrary we write: Yosna ben-
Nun, W. de-Graft, Filip d'Orleans, Otto von-Bismark.

Hem. 2. Names of Divine persons, that are taken from common
nouns, begin with capital letters only when they have no attribute in
the possessive case before them. E. g.

Agya n^ Oba n^ Hohhom kronkron. Mat. 28, 19.

Yen agya Onyahkopon, God our Father; Onyame ba, the Son of God;
m'awurade ue m'agyenkwa, my Lord and Saviour;
abagye hohhom, the Spirit of adoption. Eom.8,15.

5. Every noun and principal word in the titles of books and tbe
heads of their principal divisions.

C. ABBBEVIATIONS.

28T. To save time, space and trouble, certain well known and
frequently recurring words may be abbreviated in writing. E. g.

1 . The proper names of male and female persons^ formed from
those of the seven days of the week (§ 42, 4), when standing before
another name; viz, Kws. Kwdvv. Kwb. Kwk. Y. Kf. Kwm.; Akos. Adw.
Ab, Ak. (Ya;) Af. Am. Likewise the christian names, as in English.

2.a. The names of the days of the week: Kwsd. Dwd. Bd. Wd. Yd.
rd. Md. b. The European names of the months: Yan(uari). Feb(ruari).
Mar(si). Apr(ili). (Mai, Yuni, Yuli, are written in full.) Aag(u8ti).
Sept(embere). Okt(obere). Nov(embere). Des(embere). — The native
names of the months are not much known, and for some of them
diifcreut names are used by different persons.

3. Abbreviations for the names of the different books of the liiblc^
see in the Primer (Twi Kehkah Nhoma) of 1872. pag. 83.

4. Some abbreviations of the names of countries and totvns, and at
the same time of languages and dialects, see in § 292. and in 'a Voca-
bulary, English, Tshi (Asante), Akra\ pag. XXIV.

5. '^rhe following abbreviations of frequently recurring words arc
used in printed books:

Nfw. = hfweso, example (= e,g.)\ s. = se, as; a. s. = anase, or;
*e. s. = oncse, that is, therefore; n. a. = n^ ade, and so on;
n. bb. = n6 babi, and elsewhere; n. bn. = n6 binom, and otJiers.

6. Other abbreviations that may be adopted in writing, we leave to
the ingenuity of the writer or reader, or to a future Vernacular Grammar.
E.g. lib. Krkr., yn agy. Ony. ba, m'aw. n m'agyk. §286 12cm. ^.

§ 288. 289. ORTHOEPY. POETRY. 183

APPENDIX II.
On Prosody and Kindred Subjects.

u (1.) a. On OliTlIOEPY, as to ilio. prommciaiion oi letters,
their qiiantity, and tlie accent and tone of syllables, see § 2 — 22.

b. Emphasis is given to some particular word or words in a sen-
tence not so much by the stress of voice laid on such words (because
the emphatical stress would often be in conflict with the accent and
tones inherent in the words), as by their position and by additional
words. See §247.

C. Pauses or Rests, i.e. cessations of the voice, shortly interrup-
' ting the flow of speech, in some cases serve to give emphasis ; but
usually they serve to distinguish the sense, in which cases they are
generally indicated by points. § 285.

d. Intonation, i. e. the chamje or modulation of the voice in ivhole
sentences or periods, is to be distinguished from the high or middle
or low tones inherent in every syllable in every word (§25), and, as
it were, includes them within its range, so that e. g. in the beginning
of a longer sentence or complex of sentences, those alternate tones,
proportioned to each other, are higher throngliout, than they are to-
wards the close. The different passions of the mind also are expressed
by different tones of the voice, or by the more or less forcible utter-
ance of the sounds.

289. (2.) NATIVE FOETllY mostly consists of short songs of
different character, either mournful, or rejoicing, confident and exulting,
or praising, or disparaging and defying, or historical, descriptive and
didactic. All such songs are, or originally were, improvisations at
given occasions. The facts to which they refer, or the thoughts con-
veyed by them, are often rather intimated by a few hints or merely
touched at, than bespoken in plain words. Cf. 1 Sam. 18, 7.

Several kinds are accompanied by drums and other time-beating or
musical instruments, chanted by a precentor, and repeated or respon-
ded by a chorus. \\\ playing parties, consisting either of males by
themselves or of females by themselves, sitting or dancing or promena-
ding, many songs of the same kind may be used in succession.

1'lic natives distinguish the following hinds of songs:
Kwadwom, onnibiaman('Klwom, dwaedwom, oddkudwom, sankudvVom,
akiirododwom, agyemannare, antgrepira, ebadwom (I'lhwonkoro) n. a.

Two short specimens of native songs are the following:
1. Agyeman Kofi a okok^a ne k5 te ho;

Akjene, mannya Hama a, anka Asante de me koe.

I

184 APPENDIX n. §290.291.

(This song refers to the invasion of the Asantcs in 18G3, to the king of Akem-
Kotoku, as an originator of it, and to the king of Tuam (Tantum) with his valknt
captain Qama.)

2. Adwo*e! :,: ;,: Woko awaro amma ntem! :,: o!
Wo abusua awic sa o! Adwo'e!

Adyowa! Thou hast gone to marry hast not come soon (i.e. hast
stayed atvay too long); thy family has finished dying away (luis
died out entirely)! Adyowa!

(This sonff warns (laughters that are married abroad, not to forget their femily,
as Adyowa aid.)

Other specimens would require more explanation than our space
admits. Ten Christian Fante Songs are contained in our Tshi Hymn-
book of 1865, and the native tunes of the two first of them are found
in the Tune-book of 1860.

Hem, The native tunes chiefly consist of the tones inherent to the

spoken words, but raised to the proper height for singing, and varied

according to the tones in mere speaking and the intonation mentioned

in § 288 rf. The following may serve as a specimen of a native tune:

8 5 6 6 6, 67855, 54345, 2343. :,:

The fat cyphers are long notes. In new lines repeating the tune of foregoing
lines, two short notes may stand for a long one.

290, (3.) VERSIFICATION a,fter the analogy of that in English
and German, with accented and unaccented (or heavy and light) sylla-
bles in Jambic, Trochaic, Dactylic &c. metres, with or without rhyme,
does not meet with any serious obstacle in Tshi; cf. the Hymns No.
1-230 in the Tshi Hymn book of 1865. But the application of the
European tunes to such hymns after the German or English fashion
is often adverse to the tones inherent in the words, and the endeavour
to avoid such conflicts, renders versification with regard to a given
tune more difficult than it is without such regards.

391. (4.) HHETOlilC is cultivated in civil and criminal lawsuits
and in political transactions , most of them being held in public. —
Peculiar phrases and euphemistic expressions are employed on grounds
of politeness or superstition, in order to remove apprehensions and
ill omens, or to mitigate and paralyze the hideousncss or atrocity of
notions and facts or deeds. Proverbs are very frequently resorted to,
and now and then the speaker's view of the matter is illustrated by

a parable.

The following example is taken from a public report of several hours' length,
delivered by Kwabena Kmui, a messenger sent by Kwadade, the king of Akro]H)nj;,
to Akra, dming the quarrels of the English with the pe^)|)le of Osu and La, which
led to the bombardment and destruction of Osn (under Fort Chiistiansborg) by an
English man-of-wai', in 1854.

*Mibuu Kankanfo ne Enyircsffo be s6: "Dua bi s\ sdreso a eh6 roso
nsu. Na Obobe kii kyeree Twiton so: ma yehk6sa ney^re. Na Twi-
toh se: dabi; na wogydc6. Na aiikye, wokofwe diiA no k, onna Awu

§ 292. 293, RHETORIC. — DIALECTS. 185

a eh6 aye fita yi! na nnfpa bepe6. Na wotwitwdfi ogya no wiei no,
oyi fti hd a, use : mdnya twiton ! oyi fa hd a, osh : mknyk obob6 ! na
wode kyekyeree ogyd no baa ofie, Wode bde no, na woasdn ayiyi
gyd no ko 'fie; na obob6 no ne twiton no gu awidm\ eremommom.
Na Obobe ka kyeree Twiton s^: Asem a mekil mekyere^ wo no ni !
Meka mekyerec wo se : ma yehkoto adiiru nkgsa Ony^nkyeren yard ;
wiise: dabi; enn^ dwii aye ogya, na wode y6n akyekye; na woabdsah
yen dgu awidm\ na wgatdse ne gyd no koe." — Na meka mekyeree
Kankahfo se: "Miin'nfm Osiifo asem yi d, s^ ete ni !" — Na oyi hyen
mil a, na wdtu nsl abere me, na oyi hy6n mii d, na wdtu nsd ab^re
me. Na wos^: "Wo ds^m d w6kd yi, woinmod!"'

*J told the peoi'le of Dutch and English Akra a parable saying: "A tree was
standing in the wilderness, and water was dropping from it. And ObobS (a kind
of wild vine) said to Tshitong (a plant with long flexible leaves used for tying
bandies): Let us go and heal its sickness. But Tshitong said: no; so they left
off. But it did not last long, when ihe tree was looked at, it, having died, had
become bleak (or bare, deprived of the bark &c.), and men came and found it
(in seeking for fuel). And when they had finished chopping ihe wood, one, taking
this way, said: I have got a tshitong; another, taking that way, said: I have
got an obobe; and they bound the fuel together with them, and took (it) home.
When they had brought (it home), they unloosened (the bundles) and took the
fuel (by pieces) into ihe house; but tlie obobS and the tshitong, lying in the sun,
shrivelled together. And Obobe spoke to Tshitong saying: This is the matter 1
told ihee of! I told Ihec: Let us go (and) buy medicine to heal Onyangkyereng's
sickness; thou saidst: no; so it has died and become fuel, and we have been
used for lying it\ then we have been loosened and cast into the sun, and the
fuel has been taken off." — And I told the people of Dutih Akra, saying: ''If
you do not understand ihe matter of the Oau people, — that is it." And one
entering (his dwelh'ng) brought me liquor, and anoilier entering (his dwelling)
brought me liquor. And they said: "An to ihe word which thou sayest — thou
docat not lie!" — '

APPENDIX III.

A Comparison of the Leading Dialects
of the Tshi Language.

SO!S« The following comparison will show that the literary dialed

of Tshi, based on the dialect spoken at Ah'opong., the capital of the

Ahuapcm country, stands between ihe Akan dialects (of Akem and

Asante) and the Fante dialects, following the former more in the initial

sounds, and the latter more in the terminations.

Rem. Since the literary dialect took its rise and has been chiefly
cultivated at Akropong, we mark it by the abbreviation Akr. The
names Akan, Akyem, Asante, Fante, we mark by Ak. Aky. As. ¥.

293. Dialectical differences are found both in grammatical and
lexijographij points, which we bring under the following twelve heads.

186 APPENDIX 111. §293:

1. Transformation of commcndtKj consonants of stems takes place
in tlic following syllables and words.

r^ Akr. (te) to ti (de) do di no ni; ne, to be; ue, and;
Ak. p „ „ „ „ „ „ „ (le ne

V. „ tse tsi „ dze dzi nyc nyi; nye nye.

h. Kkv. se §141,1.2. ase §119. asase §19B. so § 19B. 119.

Aky. „ J asee j asasce J soo

As. „ \ ase | asase (dade) \ so

F. se, do J ase, ado, J asase, dade, so, do.

\ adze I adade, dadze

C. Akr. (kwa) two twe twi; gna; dwo dwe dwi dwo dwu, ,^

■^^y ' n n J) «^^^*^?« n n « tii-i

As. „ n „ « (dziia; dziie dziie dzu dzo dzu) L*

F. „ kwe kwe kwi; gwa; gwe gwe gwi gwio gwi. *

r/. Akr. hna, liwa; fwe fwo, two, fwi, liwi |

Ak. f«a „" , „ „ „ §11.12.

F. liwa hwe liwe „ hwi „ )

e. Akr. wosaw wiira awowa yera yem J
Ak. wcsa wira awoba liara yem [§19.
F. wosaw wura. ahoba. yew nyem \

Akr. (ben) won wg- won; yon ye- yen; J

Ak. (wen) yene yo- yere; yene yo- yere [§58.

F. (hwon) won wo- wore; liyeu nye- nyere )

Hem, 1. The transformation oft, d, into ts, dz, before e, i (yet not
before e), is of recent origin and does not seem to extend to all Fante
dialects. There is no vestige of it in the 500 words of the Afutn or
Cape Cape Coast dialect of 1 6C8, given by W. J, Miiller^ nor in the
writings of Ch. Frotten, 1760. The Mf (xr, and Mr. W, dc Graft
have it throughout; in the words obtained from the latter by the Kev.
J.Jieecham, the sounds ts, dz, are erroneously expressed by c7*, /. —
The transformation of u into ny before e, i, was not known to MiUler
and Frotten, nor is it found in the words of de Graft; but the Mf. Gr.
extends it even to words in which the n stands for an original d, as
in ne, and, no, to he, F. nya (written nyi in the 3ff Gr.).

It would not bring any advantage to tlie literary dialect, if these
transformations of simple into compound consonants were received
in it; the disadvantage, on the contrary, is singulary appai*cnt iu the
following examj)lc:

Akr. ado, a thing, plur. n n c e m a (besides ado and n n c w a), iJhings ;

Ak. ado, adee, „ nnecma (= nneo-mma);

F. adze [adzi], „ nnye(e)ma [J//. 6rr. nyemba, mb = nim].
In Akr., nneema appears as the regular plural formation of Ak. adee
with the addition of the diminutive suflix, cf. §42, 2. 4.; but who would
recognize the singular form adze [adzi] in the plural form nnyeni[b]a?

Hem. 2. In the words under h., not even those Fante dialects that
have d for s, use it consistently. Akr. ase, bottom, in F. occurs in three
forms, ase (so it was in 1668 and 1760), ade, adze; but these two
last forms are likely to be confounded with ade, adze, a thing.

§293. COMPARISON OP DIALECTS. 187

F. dadze = Akr. asasc, <f round, earthy is not, or only by the tone,
distinguished from F. dadze = Akr. dade, iron. (MiiUer, 1668, has
aradde = adade, but Protten, 1760, writes it asase.)

Hem. 3, The compound consonants kw and gw have in F. been
retained throughout; in Ak. and Akr. they have been transformed
into tw, d w, before e, e, i; gw has been transformed also before *a'
in Ak., but rot in Akr., which therein occupies an intermediate posi-
tion between Ak. and F. — Akr. Ak. t wa is a transformation of F. kwia,
3If. Gr. kliwa, kliwia, de Graft: chua, to cut (Protten: kya, y = wi).
Tha combinations t w o, t w i, d we, dwi, with the final w (§5) or before m,
have changed into two, twu, dwo, dwu; cf.

Akr.As.Dwoda(=D\vcwda), Aky.Dweada, M/lCrr.Gwioda, iV.Gioda;

Akr. Ak. adwini, odwumfo, F. agwini, gwimfo.

Rem. 4. ^V\\q> compound consonants h w have been retained in F.
and transformed into fw in Ak. ; but Akr. sides with Ak. only before
c, e, i, and with F. before a and partly before e, i (especially after
the nasal prefix, as in iihwca, sand, nhwi, hair).

Hem. 5. The labial consonant w has been palatalized before e, e, i
(§ 10, 2), and in Ak. it has even been transformed into y, in the
pronoun of the 3d pers. plur. (§ bS Rem. J2) ^ whilst on the contrary
Akr. and F. have retained the consonant as purely labial, and trans-
forme>l the palatal vowels into labial ones, in the said pronoun (§ 58)
and in wosaw, wura, wusiw = wesa, wira, wisie, §19, In Ak.
yawd, Akr. F. avvowd, brass, an original y seems to be transformed
into w.

Rem. 6. I'he palatal simple consonant y of Akr. and Ak, has been
transformed in F. either into hy or h, or into ny, in the pronoun of
the 1 st pers. plur. (§ 58) ; the latter transformation is also found in
the verb yem, Akr. Ak., nyem, F., to conceive. In the verb yera,
to he lost, Akr. has the commencing consonant as it is in F. (yew),
and the termination, as it is in Ak. (hara).

2. Yuriation of the vowels and especially the final sounds and
syllables of stems is frequent, so that we find the variations of simple
stems recorded in § 28, 3. inter chamfing within the same dialect or
in different dialects. We shall now review those ten forms or variations,
mentioning the cases in which the three compared dialects agree or
diiler, and then subjoining some examples under a— 0.

Variation 1 (pa) in all dialects numbers more stems than any of
the variations 2-10. In some verbs which in Akr. have full e or o,
we find in Ak. e, e or o for it^). Ak. has more verbs with one simple
vowel than F. and Akr., because Ak. omits the final w of ?'ar. 2(^), in
two verbs the final m of rar. 5(9), and in other words the accessory
syllables of rar. 7 (^)\ on the other hand it uses accessory syllables
(oar, 7) where Akr. and sometimes also F. have single vowels ft^.

Nouns in e, i, o, u, in Ak. frequently assume the additional vowels
e, e, g, o, of var. 6^).

188 APPENDIX 111. §293

Var.J2 (paw) is peculiar to F. (as early as 1668) and Akr. In Ak.
it is chiefly replaced by var, 1 or 7 in verbs and nouns ^^j or also
by var, 6 (confined to nouns) «)•

Var. 3 and 4 (pa, pae) in verbs are used nearly alike in Akr.
Ak. and F.; some interchanges, however, take place J^. In uouns, Akr.
has often the a of contracted diminutive forms, where Ak. and F. still
use iucontracted formsj^.

Vav. 5 (pam, paii). Akr. has many verbs and nouns ending in n
(and a few ending in m) instead of accessory syllables of var. 7 iu
Ak. y) Akan has, therefore, less verbs Jind nouns ending in m and n
or n, than Akr., but F. has more verbs and nouns ending in n (1668
and 1760 we find n), and besides them, it has many ending in r or 1,
Mhicli in Akr. and Ak. have the accessory syllables of var. 7 and 8»^'^

Var. 6 (p i a) is pretty much alike in Akr. Ak. F., as far as verhs
are concerned ; but accessory vowels in nouns are more frequent in
Ak., cf. var. I^^, and some exchanges take place with var. 3. 7.8.^)

Var. 7 (pare, pini) is more frequent in Ak. than in Akr., and
more frequent in Akr. than in F. {Q.Lvar.1. o.)\ in some cases the
vowels only are diflferent^. Iu Ak. the final vowel may assume an
additional vowel (which sometimes supplants the former so that tho
form belongs to var. 8, as in akyire, aduro^, whilst in Akr. the
accessory syllable may assume a final w; but in F. more frequently
the final vowel of the accessory syllable is lost, and then tho form,
ending in r or 1, rather belongs to var. 5^). — Sometimes Ak. hjis
var. 1 or 5 or 6 instead of Akr. var. 7^).

Var. 8 (para, pira) is used nearly alike; Ak. has some forms
equivalent to var. 7 in Akr. and F. (as akyire, aduro, have been meu-
tioned under var. 7 in parenthesis), but the reverse also takes place «9.

Var. 9 and 10 (pat a, patiriw) are used nearly alike, with few
interchanges n), —

Examples of the said deviations of Ak. and F. from Akr.

a. Akr. ye gye se dwo edwom
Ak. ye gye se dwo edwom
^'' ye gye so gwe (?)

b. Akr. siia kye ehe fi kyi mmgbo du hii
Aky. siiere kyerc ehene firi kyiri mmoboro dnru liuna
As. siia kye,kycre he,hene firi kyi mmoboro dnru hujhunn
F. siiare kyere ehene fi,firi mmgbore du hfl

c. Akr. ade dote ofi,ofie ayi ewi obo osgfo so, nsu own
Aky. adee nngtee ofie ayie ewio gbog gsgfog sog nsuo owno
As. ade obo osgfo so nsu
F. adze detse efi,efie ayi ewi ebo sofo do, so nsu ow*

§293.

COMPARISON OF DIALECTS.

189

d. Akr. saw dew tew
Ak. sa de te
F. = Akr.

e. Akr. hwaw ekyew
Ak. nwa ekyc
F. = Akr.

f. Akr. ta bfibi
Ak. te beabi
F.

Akr. dan

siw
si

fow
fo

gow
gono

tow
to

fuw
fu

suw
suru

bew
bere

kyew
kyea

0-

ehyew esiw asow afuw; eyaw
ehyee esie aso afuo eya

yew

akiira onya del

akiirowa ouyina da
akuroba ehina daba

aben edin ouoi'i ebiiii

ta ka

tawa kawa

etaba (JOOS) kaba

kyeii sen kyii'i ton

; gman

op on

Aky.jdane kyene sene kyiui tono omane abene edini epono ebiuiii

As.
F.

Akr.
Aky.
As.
F.

h. Akr.
Aky.
As.
F.

Akr.
Aky.
As.

i.

(dare)
dau
osram,
gsrane

osran

tee
tene

tsen
tweri

r>

»

(i66S)

gbea
oba

n

(basia)
bere

sen kyin
gbosom 5

gbosome
bosom

afoa
atana
aforS
afona

edin (eporo)
tgn eman aben edzin epon ebiin

mm

Imm
nyim

amoa
amiina
am era
amona?

kum
|ku
I kum
kum

sare
sere

n

n

atere akyiri goru
atog Jakyirie (go
aky ire jgorg

osoro

n

F. kwer bel

/.

Akr.
Aky.
As.
F.

ware
wa
ware
wal

gyere

Igyere
eyel

m, Akr. hena, bona

Aky. nhwae

As. hwana
F.

1 atere akyiri
(atel akyil

ghene boro

(gheh bo
Ighene

ehen bor

gor
gol

duru
du
duru
dul

csoro
esol

bunu
hull
bunu
bun

i. Akr.
Ak.
As. „
F.

aduru
(aduruo
jadiiro

adur

adul

afwerew
afwerec
ah were
ahwel

ad are
adere

n

adar

wana

sere

(seree

\sere

sere

yera
bara

n. Akr. fsekyi
Aky. Isekyere
As.
F.

patiriw
patiri
wati
tsiruw

•n

yew

taforo
tafere
tafo, tafara

twerew)
twere \
twere
kwerew

werew]
were ]
were

tafer, tafel

0. F. likes to insert m in compound words after nasal vowels; as,
Akr. nifa onipa Onyankopgn

Ak. „ „ Onyankoropgno *

F. nyimfa enyimpa Nyahkompgn

Wc sec that Akr. on the one hand often has shorter forms than Ak.,
18 far as the enlargement (of var, 1, 5. into var. 6. 7.) is of no value
for the meaning or distinction of words; but it goes not so far in
shortening the Akan forms as F., which reduces most forms of var. 7

190 APPENDIX III. § 293.

to the var, 5, casting off even the vowel of accessory syllables begin-
ning with r (which then in some 1\ dialects changes into 1). On the
other hand Akr. uses the final w of the F. (var. 2)-, where Ak. has
only a simple vowel (var, 1). I'hiis Akr. sets the variations 1, 2. 5. 7.
against 1, 7. in Ak. and 1, 2. 5. in F., and tliereby has the advantage
of distinguishing words of different signification, written alike in Ak.
or F. — E. g.

Akan: Akropgh or the literary dialect:

bo = bo, to cast down; bow, to intoximte; boro, to beat, surpass,

bobg ^r= bobg, to strike (repeatedly) ; bobgw, to roll up,

bu = bu, to hend, break; buw, to cover, to tvatch, lie in wait.

do = do, to love, be deep; to multiply; dgw, to till the ground,

dwa = dwa, to jut oiU; gua, to carve; kyia, to salute,

dwo = dwo, to cool; dwow, to cut (to pieces).

fe = fe, to be smooth; fe, to vomit; to yearn; few, to kiss.

go(gono) = gow, to relax, soften;

go(goro) = goru, to play,

gya = gya, to lead; to bring an offering; gyaw, to leave,

hye == hye, to spread; bye, hyew, to burn,

ka = ka, to bite; to remain; to be common'^ kaw, to ferment,

ku = ku, to bend or be befit towards; kCim, to kill.

pa = pa, to strip, denude, renounce dtc. paw, to choose.

po -- po, to growl; pow, to rub, polish, be proud.

sa = sa, to cut, lance, geld, take out; saw, to draw, scoop; to dance,

se = se, to be alike, to fit, become; to crack; sew, to spread out.

sc = se, to say, sew, to grind, sharpen,

si == si, to stand or place upright; siw, to pound; to obstruct.

so = so, to drop, to kindle, to be tough; sow, to catch, pick.

so = so, to lay hold of; sow, to cut, to hatch;

so, to carry; sow, to set, stud, bear fruit,
te = tew, to transplant; to abide, waylay; ta, to level.
te = te, to hear, understand, feel; to sit, live; tew, to tear, rend.
to = to, to lay, cast; tow, to shoot,

twi = twi, to push, thrust about; twiw, to move; to rub, clean, scour.
wa == waw, to support, tvard off; ware, to marry; wkre, to he lofuj.
wg = wg, to have; to be (in a place); to pierce;

wow, to stamp, pound, kick.
ye = ye, to do, perform t^c.,. to be; ye, to be good; yaw, to scold.
bea = bew, to cross, to impede; bea, to lie (across),
bare = baw, to cover over, besmear ; bare, to sling, wind, tmsl round,
duru = du, to arrive ; duru, to descend.
firi = fi, to proceed from; firi, to give or take upon trtisL
f\vane^=hii^n, to snap, sprain, ivithdraw;

hiian', to peel; hiiane, to scratch,
gyene= ^y(^iit to be clear (of water) ;

gyene (neho), to surrender one's life,
hini = hie, to open\ hini, to shut (a door),
hunu = hu, to see, perceive, feel; hunu, to hollow out.

§ 293. COMPARISON OF DIALECTS. 191

Akan : Akropon or the literary dialect :

sens r^ sen, to carve; sen, io floiv^ to pass, s^irpass;

sene, to cut in slices; to exchange,
tanc = tan, to hate; tarie, to disturb, he disturbed.
tene = tee, to straighten, to be straight, righteous;

tene, to lie or creep lengthwise.
luira = yera (F. yew), to go astray^ be lost; yeraw, to trouble.
twere= kyerew, to ivrite; tworew (were, werew) to scrape, grate, scratch.

Of nouns also a list of Akan words might be got np, for the differ-
ent meanings of which Akr. has different forms; e. g. the infinitives
of the preceding verbs, and others besides, as —

Ak. Akr.

knro = kurow, a town; kuru, a sore, an ulcer.
ebo = ebg, a promise; ebow, a mist, cloud; a hand (of lobacco).

In Fantc we likewise find verbs and nouns written alike, but

expressing different notions, for which Akr. has different forms; e. g.

F. hwan =^ Akr. hukn, huah', huan^ (see above under fwane)
sen = „ sen, sen, sene ( « « v sene)

tan = „ tan, tane ( n « v tanc)

„ adze = „ ade, ase
„ dadze = „ dade, asase

see above Hem. 1. 2.

3. Different use or form of the prefixes.

a. In the prefixes of nouns, the following differences may be statecl :

1. The vowel prefix o- is used in nearly the same way in Ak. and
Akr. In the Fante dialect of Cape Coast (if we will judge from the
Mf. Gr.) it is now commonly replaced by e-, whilst it was o- in 1668.
(MiXller has o- in more than 50 words; Protlen, 1760, has S- in okra,
soul, but e- in enipa, ekwang = onipa, okwah.)

2. The vowel prefixes a- or e- and the nasal prefix m- are some-
times interchanging. (The prefix a- before i and u is usually written
e- by Muller and in the Mf. Gr.)

Akr. F. enu, abien, esjl, abiesa, anan, . . . akron; \ g ^^
Ak. nnu, mmiennu, nsa, mmiensa, nnah, . . . nkron. j ^

Akr. nhoma hhwea nhwi efwene

Ak. „ „ ehwi ehwen, nhweh

F". I „ ahwea 1668 „ nhwen

lahoma anhwea isio egwene i6ns.

3. The Akr. prefix am- (in nouns) is in Ak. and F. replaced by a-;

e. g. in Akr. ampiih' ansam antwcri (ladder).
Ak. dp^ne asam akweri
F. atweri, akweri.

b, 1. On the pronouns prefixed to verbs, cf. §54. 586.

Akr. me-, 1 wo-, thou o-, he, she e, it ye-, tve mo-, you wo-, they.
Ak. „ wo- „ e- ye- mo-,hom- ye-

F. „ e- „ o- nye- bora- wo-

L

192 APPENDIX III. § 293.

It is obvious that the pronouns in the forms used in Akr. deserve
the preference before those in Ak. and F. on account of their harmony
with each other and with the independent and possessive forms, as
well as on account of their simplicity and distinctness.

2. In tlie prefixes of verbs in the perfect tense and the consecutive
form, the progressive form, the 1st and 2d future tense, the 2d im-
perative and all negative forms, there is scarely any difference, except
tliat F. in the negative future forms uses the prefix ko- instead of be-.

Concerning the changes of vowels of these prefixes by a greater
degree of assimilation, see hereafter the 5th j)oint.

4. Different form of the suffixes,

a. In the palatal suffix (§ 36), Ak, has usually e or e in addition

to, or instead of, the e or i of Akr. and F.

Akr. fitii kyinii, sumi', sone' asomdwee
Ak. fitie kyinie, sumie, sgnce, asomdwoe
F. fitsi asomgwee.

ft. The personal suffix ni (Akr. Ak.) is nyi in F. — TXxa personal

suffix fo (Akr. F.) in Ak. usually, though not always, assumes an

additional g ; e. g.

Akr. Ofanteni, Mfantefo ; owudifo pi. a - Cf. § 38. 42, 3. 4.
Ak. „ Mfantefog owudifog

F. Fantsenyi, Mfantsofo wudzifo,

c, The diminutive suffix (§ 37) is, in most cases, contracted iu Akr.

(a = awa, and even = ewa, owa, § 20, 4), whilst Ak. and F. usually

preserve U as a syllable by itself (wa, ba, besides ma; ba in 16G8

was, and still is, the prevalent form in F.). After a nasal consonant it is

ma in Akr. Ak. F. (the Mf Gr. writing mba, but pronouncing mm a).

Akr. aniwa nsatea afana akura ahycmma

Ak. aniwa nsateawa afanawa akurowa ahycnma

F. isGS anyua nsatseaba afanaba akuroba ehyemba

i008 aniba nsateaba „

5. Differences in the assimilation of joining sounds.

a. In the assimilation of neighbouring vowels, F. goes fartlier than

Akr. and Ak., especially in the prefixes be- and kg- of the verb

(§ 91, G. 96.). The vowels of these prefixes are made alike, approaching

as nearly as possible to the vowel of the verb. Cf. Mf 6rr, pag* 58. 59-

Akr. fbera befa, — beye, — bemene, — bepah, — bepuii, — bebn,

Ak. Ikg kgfa, — kgye, — kgmene, — kgpan, — kopuo, — koba;

y fhra, bafa, — beye, — hem en, — bap an, — bopun, — bobn,

\kg kafa, — kcye, — kemen, — kap<an, — kopun, — kobn.

The prefixes me (or mi) of the present, and mo (or me) of the
future tense (§91, 6) are likewise re2)resented in more than two forma
in the Mf Gr, pag, 58.

§ 293. COMPARISON OF DIALECTS. 193

Akr. fPres, meba meye memene meko mepan mibu,

Ak. [FuL mcba nieye raemcne mekg mepan mebu;

y yPres. in'ba nicye memen makg m'pan mubu,

\tui. maba meye memen mokg mlipan mobn.

h. In the assimilation of joining consonants, Akr. is more consistent

and decided, whilst Ak. and F. frequently preserve the original sounds.

I'he Mf.Gr. writes mb, nd, ng, though the pronunciation be mm, nn, nn.)

Akr, ahyemma adgmma, nnonnomma dennen, dennenneii
Ak. ahyenma adoiima dendcn dend^ndenden

F. ehyemba adgnba, adondonba dzendzen

G. Trmisformaiion and loss of original sounds in composition and
reduplicaiion.

Original sounds, especially in compounds, are more or less fully
preserved. The decay of original sounds, by the processes of shor-
tening, assimilation, elision and contraction, in compound and redupli-
cated words, seems to be least in Ak. and perhaps most in Akr.; in
some cases F. has the shortest forms (cf. 2. var, 7).

Akr. aduah anuonyam onya gsrani harehare duruduru

Aky. fadibane animenyam onyina „ dudu

As. laduane animonyam (onyira) gsorani „ n

F. adziban animnyam sorodSnyi hahare duduru

Akr. Akosua Abena Kwabena Yaw Ya Kwame Amma

Aky. Akwasiwa AbenSwa „ „ Yawa „ „

As. (Akwasiba)/Abenaba „ „ (Yaba) „ „

F. Akosua \Abraba Kgbena Kwaw Aaba Kwamcna Amba

(of KwayaWjAyaba)
Akr. komd, Aky. konond, As. korond, F. akoma, heart

7. Differences of the tone of words and inflexial forms.

In the tone there are differences between Akr. and Ak. alluded to
in § 25 Hem. 49, 3, d, e. 166, 5 Hem.

Of F. we know too little in this respect.

8. JJi/ferences in the construction of words and sentences,

a. After the verb ma, io give, in the meaning to cause, to let, the

pronoun follows it in the objective form in Ak., whilst it is prefixed

to the succeeding verb (as its subject) in Akr. and F. Cf. § 106, 25

Hem. and § 181. — The same verb ma is used in F. as an auxiliary

to the negative imperative, where Akr. and Ak. do not want it. E. g.

Akr. Wunyi me aye a, usee me din. Prov.
F. Enyi m' aye a, mma nsee me dzin.

h. After nouns in the nominative and possessive cases, the corre-
sponding jironouns are added in F., but not in Akr. and Ak. K. g.

Akr. ni'agya odan K wad wo kgc Yaw no Ya b«ae

Ak. ai;ya odanc^ K wad wo kgree Yaw ne Yawa baee

F. lu'agya nc dan. Kogwo okoe. Kwaw gnye Aaba wgbae.

13

194 APPENDIX m. §293-

6'. F. impairs the distinctness of pronunciation by frequently suppress-
ing the vowels of the pronouns me and no, or other vowels, more
than Akr. and Ak. do. Examples from the Mf. Gr.pag. 166. 172. 170.

Akr. Mekyeh no nantew ; Ade behara a wode beko no, orennye;
Ak, Mekyene no nante; Adee ben'ara a wode bekoro, orennye;
F. Mekyene n' nantsV. Eben' adz'ara na edz' bgkor a, onkegye.

Akr. Mete wo yaw memawo; wote me yaw ma me
■Afc. yf I, ya „ ,) ^ „ „ ya „ „

F. M'tse wo yew m'ma wo ; etse m' yew ma m\

9. Different signification of the same word in different dialects.
The same word may bo used in a narrower sense in one dialect and

in a wider sense in another a;, or in a sense altogether different 6J. E. g.

a. Akr. enan, the foot, is also used in a wider sense, including
gyaw, gya, Ak. gy aw a, the leg, and sere, Ak. seree, (he thigh.

Akr. otam, the cloth round the loins, tvaistcloth, = am6ase, danta,
is also used = ntama, Ak. ntoma, cloth (in general).

6. Akr. afuw, Ak. afuo, a plantation = F. ekwa, ham;
F. afuw, weeds, = Akr. wiird, hwurA, Ak. wira, nwira.

10. Different words or phrases for the same things or thoughts.
The same thing has often several names, of which one is used more

in this, another more in that dialect. E. g.

Akr. F. agya, father, en a, mother, in Ak. the speaker uses both
words only of his own parents (omitting the pronoun me before them);
I'or the parents of others, the words ose, father, oni, mother, are nseii.

Akr. onuabea, Ak. onuaba, As. onuawd, F. aky^r6wa, akyiriba, sister.

Akr. akyi ba, Ak. dma ra, F. dmona, next younger brother or sister.

Akr. aberekyi, Ak. F. amponkye, goat.

Akr. opapo, Aky. aberekyinini, he-goat.

Words peculiar to Ak. will, in general, be readily admitted in Akr.
Word* peculiar to F. will less readily be admitted, if there are words
in Ak. or Akr. expressing the same thing or notion.

Akr. liintiw, Aky. sunti, F. purow, to stumble;
Akr. purow, to challenge; lo loathe.

Akr. ode, Ak. gdee, F. edwo, yam. (Akr.d\vok6r6w, the core of a ffamh
Akr. Ak. kokoam, F. dodom, in the corner, secretly.
Akr. hunu, Ak. huh, F. gyah, gyennyah, in vain.
Akr. Ak. tra ase, tena asc, F. tend ase, kg fam, sit down,
Akr. ehti6, F. ohoo, no; Akr. wom'mod, F.wiintwA apAw, you areriffhL
Akr. no yam ye hweno, 6yc ayamghwene, F. 6yekdne, he is sUntfy.
Akr. atu me abasam, ama mapa abaw, F. eye me abagow, U has
discouraged me.

Akr. wahye me bg, wahyc me, ase, wasi me anowowa,

1^\ wahye m'ase, wabg me anohoba, he has given me a promise.

Akr. ode ne ho ato wo so, he trtisls in thee;

V. ode ue were ahye wo mu, he h((s put his confidence in thee.

§293. COMPARISON OF DIALECTS. 195

11. Foreign ivords in the Akropong and other Tshi dialects.

The Tshi language influences (and lends to) neighbouring languages
much more than it is influenced by (and borrows from) them, and
shows no tendency to grasp foreign words for its own enrichment.
Yet there is a number of words borrowed from neighbouring and
European languages, viz. a. Guan, h, Akra or Ga; c. Portuguese^
d. English, e. Dutch, f. Danish, g, German. The words of a. h. f. g,
may be said to be peculiar to the Akropong or Akuapem dialect, but
are few in number; the words of c, d. e. are common to the Tshi
dialects in general. (Words from European languages frequently have
double tones in single syllables; of. § 22, 3).

a. Of the Guan language we find less words in the Akuapem
dialect, peculiar to it, than might have been expected from the facts
mentioned in the Introduction § 1 C 4c. They are chiefly proper names,
and names of less known plants and animals. E. g. T^te and Tote'
(Tete and Tete are Akra names for the first and second son ; Tete is
the Tshi name of an Akem town; tete is a Tshi word = ancient time);
pildede = siwabiri, a certain plant.

b. Of the Akra (Ga) language may have been taken: frofrow, native
fricassee, G. flou, flouflou, from fo, fro, flo, flou, to cut.

The phrase *odi ne ho few' is suspected to be taken from Ga (eye
ehc feo) = ogoru ne ho, he mocks at (or plays about) him, though few
is a Tshi word received in Ga.

c. Of the Portuguese language, though it was used as the medium
of conversation in the trade on the Gold-Coast by Negroes and Euro-
peans, at least the Dutchmen and Danes, for more than hundred years
after the expulsion of the Portuguese, not many words have been re-
ceived in the language of the natives; e. g. prako (G. kplOto'), P. porco,
a pig; kamisiY, P. camisa, camisa.0, a shirt; asep^tere, F. asupatsel,
P. ^apato, shoe; kr^ta , P. carta, a sheet of paper; p^no , P.p^o, bread;
tabow, P. tahoa, a board; kobere, P. cobre, copper; seda, P. sed^, silk.

d. English words are more frequent; e. g. bruku', a book; topo',
a tub; ben sere, a bason; p^ns^r^, a pencil; girase, a glass; prase,
plaster; prete (= taforoboto), a plate; srete, a slate; pen, a pen; siri-
kyi, silk; samana, to summon ; k6ns^bre Akr., konsomiri Aky., a con-
stable'^ sise (= akwanhyede), subsistence^ siriu, F. sideri, a shilling.

e. To the Dutch lang. we may ascribe : mfensere, D. venster, a window.

f. To the Danish language: dagire, Dan. lak, sealing-waX', hagire,
Dan. hagel, hail-sliot; dare, F. dadare, Dan. daler, a dollar.

(To e. or /*. krakum, Dutch: kalkoen, Dan. kalkuny a turkey)

g. Of the German language are taken : brete, pi. mmerete, F. tabow,
G. brM, a board; lianspa, G. handspaten, a spade.

12. New tvords in the literary dialect.

A good number of words have been formed and introduced into the
literary dialect by the translation of the Bible and various other books.

196 APPENDIX m. §293

New words of this kind are cither derived from, or compounded of
words already existing in the language oj, or taken from other lan-
guages &j. (This borrowing from other languages has been limited to
names of foreign things, as persons, animals, plants, commercial ob-
jects, coins, weights and measures, instruments, a. s. f.) E. g.

a. adubiri, inh (fr. aduru, any 7nedkinc, drug or chemical prepara-

Uon, biri, to be hlach or of any darh colotcr),
odufrafo, a chemist, apothecary, fr. aduru, medicine, fra, to mix.
adufrasem, pharmacy; krifranyansa, chemistry.
botohuhuw-afiri, steayn-emjine', adabahkwah, railroad;
mframatoa, ahuhmuliyeh, an air-balloon; akyirikyerewfo, a telegraph;
okanea-niframa, iUuminatin()-(jas ; fa-hho, asase-mu-nno, petroleum;
hanh-mfonini, a photograph ; okyiii-nsoroma, a planet.
amanae, post-office; amanade, things sent by the post', amanade-fwefo,

post-master, fr. mana, to send (by opportunity), to forward to.
adounyade, means of grace, fr. dom, grace, nya, to get, ado, thing

(something by which grace is obtained),
adommanade, sacrament, (something by wliich grace is conveyed),
odiyifo, a prophet, fr. yi adi, reveal, disclose, briwj forth, manifest,
abotanforofo (lit. roch-climher), the wild goats of the ro:k, JobSO,!-
akutuguS, an apple (tree), fr. akutu, an orange and ogudwa, a guava.

b. Kaesare (or hempon), Ccesar, emperor ; tsar, sar, czar; sultan, kalife,

sah, kan, pa§a, hospodar; kurfiirst, or pawhcne, elector; her-zog, or
sahene, duke, Pa,pa, pope; episkopo, or asafo-so-fwefo, bishop; &c.

Aristokratefo (omananiwafo), liberalefo (ahofadipefo), demokratefo &c.

behemot [susonoj; lewiatan [odenkyem]; Job 40, 15, 41, 1,

anoma-kasida (hasida), a storh. Lev. 11, 19. Job 89, 18. Fs. 104, 17.

allon-dua, ela-dua or terebinte-dua, clon-dua, (or odum, okum, dupon),

oaJc, terebinth, teil tree, dtc. Gen.1^,6. 80,4.8. Ju(lg.9,6.37. 18.6,13.44,14.
gofer-dua, dibo-dua (fr. rfea^6oarrf^,kupresi, fir tree, cypress &c, sitim-
dua, Ex. 25, 10; sikomore-dua ; granate (-akutu, 2X0x0^0), pomegranate.
kofer, narde, kdrkom, kanc, kfnamon, mire, dloe; Sol. Song 6,7.
sohUm-bo, onyx stone; sardio, topasio, yaspi-bo &c. (or bogyanam-ho,

akratc-bo, afwefwebo &c. Ex. 28,17-20); margarite [ahenepd], apearl;
denare, Lat. denarius, <h/id()ioi'; talentc, Mat. 17,24. 27; 18,24.; s^kel;

g(»rri; lionior, kor (korokcsc, opodo, i Ki 5,11), bat, efa, hin, gomcr, &c.
samhuka-sauku, (sacJchut?) Dan. 8, 5. fr. oa^f/fjirxfj and osahkii, a kind

of string-instrument; kompaso, a compas; a pair of compasses.

Rem, Expressions of mathematics and natural or other sciences arc
translated into 1'shi as far as possible. Some such translated expressions
are found in Ch, liellon's ^'Instruction in Arithmetic'', pag. 174. 175.
Other new or foreign words, besides those in the Bible, are found in
the Stories from General History translated by IJ. Asa7itc.

Ct'. the list 0. No. 32. o7. on page XI. of this Grammar.

TAl^I^E OP" COIVTKTSJTS.

PliKFACE ...... I-V

Lists of Books for Literary liefer et fees.

A. Autliors on Geographical and Historical Matters of the G. C. VI

B. Autliors furnishing information on the Tshi Language . VII

C. Publications of the Basel Missionaries in Tshi .... VIII
Introductory Notes

on the Languages and Dialects of the Gold Coast . . . X-XIV

§ 1. The Dialects of Tshi. Enumeration of Countries . . X

§ 2. Countries and Languages to the North of Asante . . XIV

§ 3. Names of the Language: ^I'shi, Amina, Akan . . . XV
§ 4. The Literary resp. Akuapem Dialect, and the Akan and

Fante Dialects XVII

§ 5. Other Languages spoken in the Gold Coast Countries . XX

§ (). Neighbouring Languages XXI

§ 7. '^I'he Position of Tshi among the African Languages . XXII

A GRAMMAK OF THE ASAISTE AND FANTE OU TSHI LANGUAGE.

Part I. — Of Sounds and Letters (PHONOLOGY).

Chap. i. — Pronunciation and Division of Sounds § 1-15 . 1-8

Alphabet, § 1 1

Vowels, § 2-7 1

Simple vowels : division and pronunciation, § 2 1

nasal vowels, 3; quantity, 4 2

Compound Vowels: diphthongs, § 5; disyllabic combinations, 6; 3
diphthongs with a very short vowel, 7 4

(Consonants, § 8-13 4-7

Simple consonants : division and pronunciation, § 8 ... . 4
lengthened semi-vowels, 9 4

Compound Consonants: palatalized, §10; labialized, 11; .
palato-labials, 12

System of consonants, §13

Fante and foreign letters, §14

Names of letters, § 15

CiiAv.n. — Eupli07iy. % 16-22 8-13

Changes of letters in general, §16 8

Assimilation, §17, 18; permutation, 19; elision and contraction,
20; apocope, 21; insertion and addition, 22 8-13

5, (i
6

7

7

8

198 CONTENTS.

Chap. III. — /Sy««7;fc.9. §23-26 13-16

Structure of Syllables, § 23 13

Division of syllables, § 24 14

Tone and Accent, § 25, 26 15,16

Tone of vowels and serai-vowels, § 25 15

Accent of words, or stress on syllables, § 26 16

Part II. — Of Wokds (ETYMOLOGY).

Chap. I. — Formation of Words in (jcneraL §27-30. . . 17-19

Distinction of words concerning their form and origin, § 27 . 17

Primitives. Primary and secondary stem. § 28 17

Derivatives. Prefixes, suffixes, reduplication. § 29 17

Compounds, perfect, imperfect, obscure. § 30 19

Chap. ii. - The Paris of Speech. § 31-147 19-95

Eight classes of single words, §31 19

1. Nouns.

Definition and division, § 32. 33 20

Structure of nouns, § 34 21

Formation by prefixes, § 35 21

by suffixes (palatal, diminutive, personal), § 36-38. ... 23

Compound nouns, § 39 25

Tone and accent of nouns, § 40 30

Gender, § 41 32

Number, §42-44 33

Case, or different position in the sentence, § 45. 46 36

Independent and connected form, § 47-50 37

Other changes of the original tone, § 51 39

2. Pronouns.

Definition and division, § 52 39

I. Personal pronouns: 39-41

independent, § 53; prefixed, 54; possessive, 55; objective, 56; 39,40

reflexive, 57; comparative view and dialects, 58; emphatic 41

compound forms, 59 41

II. Interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite pronouns: .... 42

for persons, things, places, times, manner, quantity, § 60. . . 42

cases, 61: the indefinite pronoun de, 62, and nom, 63. - . 43

III. Relative pronouns: . 44

Pron. in connection with the relative particle *a\ §64. . . 44

demonstrative pron. compounded with the relat. particle, 65. . 45

3. Adjectives.

Definition and division, § 66 45

CONTENTS. 199

I. Adjective nouns, denoting quality or quantity and number, § 67. 46

different uses, 68; primitives, derivatives, compounds, 69. . 46

different forms connected with different uses, 70 47

personal nouns derived from adjectives, 71 47

Plural form, § 72. Gradation, § 73 -.47, 48

II. Adjective pronouns, or distinguishing adjectives, § 74. . 48, 49

III. Distinguishing particles, relative and emphatic, § 76. . . 49

4. Numerals.

Definition and division, § 76 60

Cardinal numerals, primary and compound, § 77-79 ... 50

Nouns compounded with numerals, § 80 52

Iterative and multiplicative numerals, § 81 63

Distributive numerals, § 82. Ordinal numerals, § 83. . . . 53, 54

Fractional numbers, § 84. 55

5. Verbs.

Definition; notions expressed by them, § 85 65

Division; transitive, intransitive, locative, 86 ; other kinds, 87. 55,56

General structure of the verb, § 88 56

Inflexion of the verb. §89-103 or 112 56

Person and number ; pronominal prefixes, § 89 56

Moods and tenses, § 90 57

Ten principal forms of the finite verb, § 91 58

Affirmative and negative form, § 92 60

Ingressive form, § 93 60

Independent and connected form, § 94 60

Examples to § 91-94 (monosyllabic and disyllabic), § 95-98. 60-64

Reduplication of verbs, § 99 64

Tone of trisyllabic and polysyllabic verbs, § 100 65

Tones of certain monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs, § 101 . 65

Verbs used in the continuative form, § 102 66

The palatal suffix in the continuative form, § 103. ... 67

Infinitive mood (verbal nouns), § 104 67

Compound infinitives, § 105 68

Combinations of verbs, §106. . 69

a. with auxiliaries (15 kinds) referring to preparation, time,

completion, repetition and other modalities of action, § 107. 69

b. with auxiliaries (de&c.) introducing a passive object, 108. . 70

c. with auxiliaries (directive verbs) introducing a locative or

terminative complement, 109. . 71

(1. with supijlemental verbs, 110. ........... 72

e. with auxiliaries denoting quality of action, 111 73

Varieties of the forms and tones of such combinations, §112. 73

Combinations of verbs with specific subjects or complemonts, § 1 13. 73

200 CONTENTS.

6. Adverbs including Postpositions.

Definition of adverb, § 114; of postposition, 115; division, 116. 73, 74

I. Prepositions and postpositions in general, § 117. . . . . 74

II. Nouns of place and relation, serving as adverbs and post-

positions, § 118-122 77-80

ITT. Other nouns and pronouns of place, § 12.3-127. . . . 81-83

an adverb of place, 128 83

TV. Nouns and adverbs of time, §129.130 83-85

V. Nouns and adverbs of manner and degree, § 131-135. . 85-89

1. Nouns, singly or with postpositions, §131 85

2. Proper adverbs, derived from pronouns, adjectives, verbs,

or primitive, or compound: division, 132. ...'... 86

demonstrative adverbs and adjectives used as adverbs, 133- 80
descriptive, imitative, distinguishing adverbs, and other

adverbs of extent, 134 87

adverbs of certainty, contingency, negation, 135. ... 89

VI. Nouns and adverbs of cause, § 136 89

VII. Etiglish adverbs expressed by verbs and otherwise, § 137. 89

7. Conjunctions.

Definition and division, § 138 89

Conjunctions that connect a. co-ordinate parts of sentences, § 139. 90

6. co-ordinate sentences, § 140 90

(?. subordinate sentences with principal ones, §141. . . . 90

Interrogative particles, § 142 94

8. Interjections &c.

Definition, § 143 94

Enclitic sounds giving emphasis, §144 94

Exclamations and acclamations, §145 94

Colloquial interjections, § 146 95

Salutations and their replies, § 147 95

Part III. — Of Sentences (SYNTAX).

Definition of sentence; principal parts of it. § 148 96

Different kinds of sentences, § 149; indicative, 150; optative, 151; 96

imj>erative, 152; interrogative, 153; exclamatory, 154. ... 96

Structure of sentences: simple and compound sentence, §155. 97

Section i. — simple sentences.

CnAv.i. — TheSuhject.§166-'i61 98,99

The simple subject a noun or pronoun, § 1 56, an impers. pron.,457; 9ft
its position before or after the v. n e, 158 ; double expression

of the subject, 151); omission of the subject, 160 99

Comj>ound subjects, §161 99

CONTENTS. 201

CiiAP. II. — The Fredicate. § 162-182 100^106

Definition and constituent parts, § 162 100

The simple predicate a single verb, § 1 63 100

Compound predicates, § 164 100

Uses of the inflected forms of the verb, § 165-182. . . . 101-106
In what ways the passive voice is supplied, § 165 Rem. . . 101
Present tense, §166; continuative form, 167; negative, 168. 101
Preterit tense, 169; negative, 170; Perfect tense, 171 ; neg., 172. 102

Progressive form, 173; negative, 174 103

Future 1. 175; future II. 176; negative, 177 104

Consecutive form, 178; negative, 179 104, 105

Imperative I. & II. 180; compound, 181; negative, 182. . 105, 106

CuAv. in. ^ Attributes. § lS'6-ld7 106-110

Members of sentences enlarged by attributes, § 183 106

Three kinds of attributes, §184 • 106

1. The attributive adjective and numeral, § 185 106

successive order, 186; composition with the noun, 187. . . 106
co-ordinate adjectives, 188; adjective sentence, 189. . . . 107

2. The appositive noun, § 190; 107

apposition and composition of personal nouns, 191. . . . 108

3. The attributive noun and pronoun, §192; 108

relations expressed by the attribute, 193; composition with the 108
noun qualified by it, 194; double expression of the attribute, 195;
compensation for, or omission of, the noun qualified by the
attribute; a sentence instead of an attributive noun; 196. . 109

Different attributes added to one noun, § 197 110

Chap. iv. — Completion of the Predicate. § 198-220. . . 110-130
Different kinds of complement, § 198 110

1. The nominative complement (expressing identity, distinct in-
dividuality, class, quality, state or condition, number, difference

and change of existence), §199. ........ ,110-112

2. The objective complement (object), §200-206 112-118

Various kinds, § 200; simple or compound object, position,
connected form, the object made emphatic, 201 ; omission of

the object, 202; the object an infinitive, 203 112-115

Passive and resultive objects, § 204. Direct and indirect objects :
passive and resultive, 205; dative and passive, 206. . .115-118

3. The locative complement, complement of place, §207-208.118-120
the place mentioned by itself or with reference to a thing, 207. 118
a list of locative verbs, and examples, 208 119

1. The (adverbial) complement of manner, § 209 1 20

5. Specific complements of verbal phrases, § 210-220. . . 121-130

Definition of verbal phrase, 210 121

l)The specific complement like an object, 211.212 121

2) The spec, compl. like a locative compl., 213. 214. . . .122, 123

3) The spec, subject a noun of place with its attribute, 215. . 124

202 CONTENTS.

4-6) J'hrasos expressing bodily or mental actions or affections, 216. 125

4) the spec, subject a part of a persons body with its attrib., 217. 125

5) the spec, object ditto, including reflexive verbs, 218. . . . 127

6) mixed and complex verbal phrases, 219 128

7) Verbal phrases, a principal and a supplemental verb, 220. . 129

Ciixp. V. — Extension of the Predicate. §221-243. . .130-142
Different kinds of adjunct, § 221 130

1. The adjunct of place, § 222; introduced by auxiliaries, 223; 131
two or more adjuncts combined, 224; omission of the aux. v., 225. 132

2. The adjunct of time, §226; ways of expressing it, 227; .. 133
merely adverbial, 228; with auxiliaries, 229; merely verbal, 230; 133
uses of the verb kye as a principal or auxiliary verb, 231. 135

3. The adjunct of manner, §232; ways of expressing it, 233; 136
adjunctsof quality or mode, 234; of degree and extent, 235 ; 136,137
of certainty or contingency, 236 ; of manner = instrument of
action, price or exchange, accompaniment or exclusion, 237. 138

4. The adjunct of cause, §238; ways of expressing it, 239. . 140
a real cause, 240; a material, 241 ; a condition, a concession, 242. 140
a purpose or intention, 243 141

Chap. vi. — Subordinate and co-ordinate Parts of Sentences, .
Order of Words. Emphasis. Ellipsis.

1. Subordinate parts of simple sentences, §244 143

2. Co-ordinate parts of simple sentences, § 245 143

3. Order of words. Combinations of collateral parts of a sent., 246. 146

4. Emphasis, § 247 146

5. Ellipsis, § 248 148

Section n. — compound sentences.

Chap. i. — Co-ordinate Sentences. § 249-253 149

1. Copulative co-ordination, §250 149

2. Adversative co-ordination, §251 151

3. Causative (illative) co-ordination, § 252 162

4. Contraction and abbreviation of co-ordinate sentences, § 253. 152
Subordinate thoughts expressed by co-ordination) § 253*- . . 153

Chap. ii. — Subordinate Sentences. § 254-280 155

1. Noun-sentences, §255; abbreviation and contraction, 256. 156-158

2. Adjective sentences, §257; abbreviation of such, 258. . . 159

3. Adverbial sent., 259; a. of place, 260; b. of time, 261-266; 160-105

c. of manner, 267; of comparison, 268; abbrev. of such, 269; 165, 166
of degree, 270; abbreviated, 271 ; of proportion, 272; . . 166, 167
of extent, by effect or consequence, 273; 168

d. of cause, 274 ; of a real cause, motive or reason, 275 ; of
condition, 276,' of (time or) condition expressed by co-ordination,
276^; of exception, 277; of concession, 278; of pnrpose or in-
tention, 279; abbreviated sentences of intention, 280. . 169-175

i

CONTENTS. 203

OiiAP. 111. — Manifold Compound Sentences. §281-284. 175-178
Morci than two co-ordinate principal sentences, §281. . . . 175
Two or more subordinate sentences, §282. Periods, §283. .176,177
Sentences in ^parenthesis, § 284 178

Appendix i. — On Subjects connected with OrtJwgraphy. . 178-182

A. Punctuation, § 285 178

B. Capital Letters, § 286 181

C. Abbreviations, § 287 182

Appendix ii. — On Prosody and Kindred Subjects. . . 183-185

1. Orthoepy, Empliasis, Pauses, Intonation, §288 183

2. Native Poetry, § 289 183

3. Versification, § 290 184

4. Rhetoric, § 291 184

Appendix hi. — A Comparison of the Leading Dialects, . 185-196
'I'he literary dialect, uniting the Akan and Fante dialects, § 292. 185
Grammatical and lexicographic points of difference, §293. .185-196

1 . ^rransformation of commencing consonants of stems. . . . 186

2. Variation of the vowels and the final sounds of stems . . 187

3. Different use or form of the prefixes 191

4. Different form of the suffixes 192

5. Differences in the assimilation of joining sounds 193

(). Transformation and loss of sounds in composition. . . . 193

7. Differences of the tone 193

.S. Differences in construction 193

9. Different signification of the same word 194

10. Different words or phrases for the same thing or thought. . 194

1 1. Foreign words in the Akropong and other Tshi dialects . 195

12. New words in the literary dialect 196

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

Pa.i^e 29 line 14 read: longsvjfering. P. 56 (line 10 from below); Cf.
S 215, 2. belongs to § 89, 3 (not 2). P. 71 1. 9: he (takes...) P. 94 in
§144: monko o. P. 95 in § 147, 4: hkye. P. 1111.9: (one m'agya),
P. 1 10 in the midst: lengthways, lengthwise. P. 135 1. 3: ff (for fi). P. 139
1.15: dukiV or dukfi'; 1.19: wu kyee yen (own mad mo = /ie rfiee^
Ihai I mau die likewise). P. 155 last line of § 253: 273 (not 271). P. 165
in § ()7, 1 read: excess (for extent).

P. M 1. 1 add 4. before Numerals. P. 118 1. 21 add 3. before In
other cases... P. 63 in §98^10 under 1, 13 add 31,13. P. 47 add to
§ 70,2: (Wodi amlmmono, they eat meat '.^ w6d\ nam m6mon6, they eat
raw meal). P. 89 add to § 137 : Cf. § 273, c. in the examples: fearfully,
wonderfidly^ exeessively, very far.

<•»

BASEL: PfilNTED BY C. 8CHULTZE.

B

^**"oii JO Mas*.'

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The borrower must return this item on or before
the last date stamped below. If another user
places a recall for this item, the borrower will
be notified of the need for an earlier return.

Non-receipt of overdue notices does not exempt
the borrower from overdue fines.

Harvard College Widener Library
Cambridge, MA 02138 617-495-2413

Mease handle with care.

Thank you for helping to presrave
library collections at Harvaxd.